Monday, September 30, 2019

Role of Cognition in Counseling

ROLE OF COGNITION IN COUNSELING TABLE OF CONTENT. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 Cognitive therapy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy†¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 Characteristics of cognitive-behavioral therapy†¦. 5 Virtual Reality Therapy†¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 Rational Emotive Therapy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦8 Transactional ANALYSIS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 conlusionâ⠂¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 reference†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦10 Role of cognition in counseling Introduction Cognitive therapy centers on the belief that our thoughts are influenced by how we feel.There are a number of different cognitive therapies, including Cognitive-Behavioral, Reality, Rational Emotive and Transactional Analysis. Each of these cognitive approaches to counseling can help a client through the counseling process, by providing further understanding of the way our thoughts are sometimes distorted. Cognitive therapy focuses on the present. This means that issues from the past that are influencing current thinking, are acknowledged but not concentrated on. Instead a counselor will work wi th the client on identifying what is causing distress in present thinking.What links these different forms of cognitive therapy is the way in which the counseling relationship, between a counselor and client, develops. Assertiveness exercises, role-playing and homework are also part of the supportive one-to-one sessions a client will have with a counselor. In this paper will review and analyze the role cognition in counseling. Cognitive therapy Studies have shown that cognitive therapy is an effective treatment for depression. It is comparable in effectiveness to antidepressants and interpersonal therapy or psychodynamic therapy.The combination of cognitive therapy and antidepressants has been shown to be effective in managing severe or chronic depression. Cognitive therapy has also proven beneficial to patients who have only a partial response to antidepressants. There is good evidence that cognitive therapy reduces relapse rates. In addition, some evidence has shown that cognitive therapy is effective in treating adolescent depression. Here are a number of the different cognitive therapies, including Cognitive-Behavioral, virtual Reality, Rational Emotive and Transactional Analysis. Cognitive-Behavioral TherapyThis cognitive approach to counseling is based on the belief that learning comes from personal experience. Counseling will focus on a client’s ability to accept behavior, clarify problems and difficulties and understand the reasoning behind the importance of setting goals. With the help of self management training, assertive exercises and role-playing the counselor can help a client work towards goals. Characteristics of cognitive-behavioral therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy is based on the idea that our thoughts cause our feelings and behaviors, not external things, like people, situations, and vents. The benefit of this fact is that we can change the way we think to feel / act better even if the situation does not change. Cognitive-behavior al therapy is considered among the most rapid in terms of results obtained. The average number of sessions clients receive (across all types of problems and approaches to CBT) is only 16. Other forms of therapy, like psychoanalysis, can take years. What enables CBT to be briefer are its highly instructive nature and the fact that it makes use of homework assignments.CBT is time-limited in that we help clients understand at the very beginning of the therapy process that there will be a point when the formal therapy will end. The ending of the formal therapy is a decision made by the therapist and client. Therefore, CBT is not an open-ended, never-ending process. A sound therapeutic relationship is necessary for effective therapy, but not the focus. Some forms of therapy assume that the main reason people get better in therapy is because of the positive relationship between the therapist and client.Cognitive-behavioral therapists believe it is important to have a good, trusting relati onship, but that is not enough. CBT therapists believe that the clients change because they learn how to think differently and they act on that learning. Therefore, CBT therapists focus on teaching rational self-counseling skills. Cognitive-behavioral therapists seek to learn what their clients want out of life (their goals) and then help their clients achieve those goals. The therapist's role is to listen, teach, and encourage, while the client's roles is to express concerns, learn, and implement that learning.Not all approaches to CBT emphasize stoicism. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, Rational Behavior Therapy, and Rational Living Therapy emphasize aspects of stoicism. Beck's Cognitive Therapy is not based on stoicism. Cognitive-behavioral therapy does not tell people how they should feel. However, most people seeking therapy do not want to feel they way they have been feeling. The approaches that emphasize stoicism teach the benefits of feeling, at worst, calm when confronted with undesirable situations. They also emphasize the fact that we have our undesirable situations whether we are upset about them or not.If we are upset about our problems, we have two problems — the problem, and our upset about it. Most people want to have the fewest number of problems possible. So when we learn how to more calmly accept a personal problem, not only do we feel better, but we usually put ourselves in a better position to make use of our intelligence, knowledge, energy, and resources to resolve the problem. Cognitive-behavioral therapists want to gain a very good understanding of their clients' concerns. That's why they often ask questions.They also encourage their clients to ask questions of themselves, like, â€Å"How do I really know that those people are laughing at me? † â€Å"Could they be laughing about something else? † Cognitive-behavioral therapists have a specific agenda for each session. Specific techniques / concepts are taught duri ng each session. CBT focuses on the client's goals. We do not tell our clients what their goals â€Å"should† be, or what they â€Å"should† tolerate. We are directive in the sense that we show our clients how to think and behave in ways to obtain what they want.Therefore, CBT therapists do not tell their clients what to do — rather, they teach their clients how to do. CBT is based on the scientifically supported assumption that most emotional and behavioral reactions are learned. Therefore, the goal of therapy is to help clients unlearn their unwanted reactions and to learn a new way of reacting. Therefore, CBT has nothing to do with â€Å"just talking†. People can â€Å"just talk† with anyone. The educational emphasis of CBT has an additional benefit — it leads to long term results. When people understand how and why they are doing well, they know what to do to continue doing well.A central aspect of rational thinking is that it is based o n fact. Often, we upset ourselves about things when, in fact, the situation isn't like we think it is. If we knew that, we would not waste our time upsetting ourselves. Therefore, the inductive method encourages us to look at our thoughts as being hypotheses or guesses that can be questioned and tested. If we find that our hypotheses are incorrect (because we have new information), then we can change our thinking to be in line with how the situation really is.If when you attempted to learn your multiplication tables you spent only one hour per week studying them, you might still be wondering what 5 X 5 equals. You very likely spent a great deal of time at home studying your multiplication tables, maybe with flashcards. The same is the case with psychotherapy. Goal achievement (if obtained) could take a very long time if all a person were only to think about the techniques and topics taught was for one hour per week. That's why CBT therapists assign reading assignments and encourage their clients to practice the techniques learned.Virtual Reality Therapy This form of therapeutic approach works well in treating fears and phobias. This is because virtual reality therapy (VRT) concentrates on accurately duplicating the distressing situations. Counselors, who use this form of cognitive approach, during counseling sessions, will recreate situations in order to expose the client to what triggers their fear. VRT also works well in treating anxiety disorders. Rational Emotive Therapy Rational Emotive Behavior therapy (REBT) centers on the belief that human beings have a tendency to develop irrational behavior and beliefs.These are the ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’ that many people fill their lives with, and which influence thought and deed. REBT acknowledges that past and present conditions affect a person’s thinking and utilizes a framework so that the counselor can apply activating events that allow the client to identify beliefs and conseque nces. Transactional Analysis TA, as Transactional Analysis is also known, is based on the notion that our personality consists of three states of ego – parent, adult and child. During interaction with others one of our ego states will predominate, depending on the situation we find ourselves in.Certain types of behavior are associated with each of the ego roles, and using this form of cognitive approach to counseling allows the client to understand the different ego stages and how they interact with each other. conlusion In conclusion, Cognitive therapy (or cognitive behavioral therapy) helps the client to uncover and alter distortions of thought or perceptions which may be causing or prolonging psychological distress. However, there are key principles that aim counselors with the best tools to provide the kind of supportive guidance that is conducive to creating a positive counseling outcome for their clients.References David, Daniel. , Szentagotal, A. , Eva, K. , & Macavei, B. (2005). A synopsis of rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT): Fundamental and applied research. Journal of Rational &Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Josefowitz, N. , & Myran, D. (2005). Towards a person-centered cognitive behavior therapy. Counseling Psychology Quarterly Retrieved January 20, 2006, fromAcademic Search Premier. Kirschenbaum, H. (2004). Carl Rogers’s life and work: An assessment on the 100

Sunday, September 29, 2019

History of Legazpi Essay

DURING THE PRE-SPANISH PERIOD Early in the 13th century, Datu Balensusa and Dumagsil, two of the ten Bornean Datus led by Datu Puti, went from Panay to Laguna and the Bicol Region. Prehistoric dwellers mostly fishermen and farmers established a barangay on the mouth of Makabulo River called Sawangan (now Legazpi Port) , a small settlement by a mangrove swamp,Its inhabitants were headed by old chieftain, Gat Ibal,a descendant of Datu Dumagsil. The home grown name,Sawangan was another way to say Sabang indicating a† natural wharf created by the water from the sea†. Dwelling in tiny groups of huts which are made from rattan and nipa, small houses occupied this part of swampy and low land and its surrounding areas were known as Ibalon. DURING THE SPANISH PERIOD In 1573,under the Spanish expeditionary forces,Capitan Juan de Salcedo (Capitan Esteban de Manchaca) and 120 soldiers reached and explored barangay Sawangan. The natives gallantly fought the invaders but were no match for the conquistadores’ superior arms. Subsequently, the natives were converted to Catholism. In 1587,Franciscan friars of the Doctrina of Cagsawa began to convert the settlement to Christianity. Fr. Francisco de Sta. Ana,it’s first parish priest built the first chapel made of nipa and bamboo to house and established the first Franciscan mission in Sawangan, the â€Å"Mission de San Gregorio de Sawangan. In 1605, Sawaà ±gan was elevated to Visita Regular, having been previously under the spiritual ministry of Cagsaua since 1578. In 1616,Sawangan become an independent town separated from Cagsawa called Albaybay (meaning â€Å"by the bay†) finally shortened as Albay. It was declared the capital of the province of Partido de Ibalon (old name of the Province of Albay). The town was renamed Albay, then Legazpi, as Albay went on to refer to the province at present. Perennially rocked by minor eruptions of the Mayon Volcano for two centuries, compounded by sporadic attacks by Muslim pirates and the Dutch, the capital was partially destroyed by a major eruption on February 1, 1814. The catastrophe buried Cagsaua.The progress of the town was razed to the ground upon the eruption, Fr. Pedro Licup evacuated the community to Makalaya (today’s Barangay Taysan). Some of the people, however, remained in the old town and began anew as a barrio. In lieu of their former patron saint, St. Gregory the Great, which had also been transferred to Albay, they adopted St. Raphael, the Archangel and transformed the ermita into a church. They finally regained their old status but never changed the name of the place as Albay Viejo or Banwang Daan.Years later in 1856, Sawangan was restored and subsequently renamed Binanuahan (Banuang Gurang) which literally means â€Å"Old Town† or â€Å"ancient place or town wherein a town was founded† and/or â€Å"the former seat of a town†. It was made a Visita Tributaria of Taytay. The combined towns were later named Albay Nuevo (Bagumbayan – meaning â€Å"New Town†) with the residents of Binanuahan’s objections to the union. On July 17, 1856, Ramon Montero of the Govierno Superiora de las Islas Filipinas signed a decree which created the Visita of Pueblo Viejo, out of Binanuahan – uniting the barrios (settlement communities) of Lamba, Bigaa and Rawis. On September 22, 1856, through a subsequent Royal Decree, the name Legazpi was officially adopted to including the visitas of Lamba, Rawis and Bigaa, and declaring it an independent town. It was formally inaugurated on October 23, 1856. Historically, the city was named Legazpi, to perpetuate to the memory of Adelantado Don Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. This was the agreement made between the original inhabitants of the place and the Spaniards during the former’s quest for autonomy. It took them 21 years, in which they sought the help and support of the Spaniards, then living in the town. As a sign of gratitude, the people readily accepted the name, which was also then proposed by the Spaniards upon fulfillment of their efforts. Now autonomous, and with a fast paced progress and prosperity,the port of Legazpi served as anchorage of ships sailing for Nuevo Espaà ±a (through Mexico) in the later part of the 16th century until it was elevated a Royal Decree by issued earlier on May 18, 1872 in Madrid and was later promulgated by Governor Juan Alamenos y de Vivar on December 3, 1874 as a port of entry open to world trade . Legazpi first became a city under the Becerra Law of 1892 promulgated by the Spanish Minister of Ultramar in 1894, which constituted the municipalities of Legazpi, Albay Nuevo and Daraga, into the Ayutamiento de Albay with the resentment of the Daragueà ±os. At the height of the Filipino-Spanish Revolution, the Civil Governor of Albay, Angel Bascaran y Federic and the Spanish residents fled Albay. Subsequently, a revolutionary Junta was organized by Don Anacleto Solano, who later turned over command to General Vicente Lucban, General-in-Chief of Operations of the Philippine Revolutionary Governments in the Southern Region. DURING THE AMERICAN PERIOD By January 23, 1900 the American forces outgunned Legazpi defenders, defeating the Sandatahanes led by Vito Belarmino and Jose Ignacio Paua at the Battle of San Rafael Bridge known as the â€Å"Battle of Legazpi†. With the American occupation in 1900, the city was dissolved upon reestablished Legazpi, Albay and Daraga as independent towns under a military government. In 1908, the Philippine Assembly, again, merged the three towns creating the Municipio de Albay which became the capital of the province. Giving way to bitter opposition from Daragueà ±os, realizing the merger was doing more harm than good to their interests, the Philippine Assembly finally separated Daraga from the capital town in 1922. DURING THE JAPANESE PERIOD Simultaneous with the bombing of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the Japanese Imperial Army’s Kimura Detachment entered Legazpi on December 12, 1941. Yet again, countless accounts of the locals’ ultimate sacrifices, gallantry and heroism against the odds in the ensuing Guerilla warfare abound during that period. Under Japanese military administration for almost 4 years, the capital was finally liberated by American forces on April 1, 1945. DURING THE REPUBLIC Legazpi became a city for the second time on July 18, 1948 when Daraga and Legazpi were combined again to constitute its territory, under Republic Act No. 306. Re-Incorporating Daraga, Republic Act No. 306 elevated the town to today’s Legazpi City. However, bitter opposition from the Daragueà ±os ultimately prevailed with the passing of Republic Act No. 993 which repealed R.A. 306 creating the separate Municipalities of Legazpi and Daraga.With the re-creation of the two municipalities, the city was dissolved in June 8, 1954. Finally on June 12, 1959,Republic Act 2232 authored by Senator.Pedro Subido and Congressman.Jusfino Nuyda was signed by Pres.Carlos P.Garcia. This was later amended by Republic Act 5525. By virtue of this act, Legazpi became a city for the third time. .Legazpi was declared Albay Province’s seat of government as its capital city under Republic Act 2254. On February 27, 1973, With the onset of the Integrated Reorganization Plan of Pres. Ferdinand Marcos, the City of Legazpi was declared under Presidential Decree No. 125, to comprise its present territorial jurisdiction and the adjacent Municipality of Daraga. however, the decree was permanently mothballed. This plan also made the city as the regional administrative center of the Bicol Region (Presidential Decree No. 1). At present,the Gateway City of Bicol,Legazpi,is a bustling and very progressive city that is home of more than 180,000 citizens.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Before the Harlem Renaissance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Before the Harlem Renaissance - Essay Example In another one of Harry Bloom’s books he reports on another famous black writer, Fredrick Douglass (â€Å"Major Black American Writers through the Harlem Renaissance† 34-35). Fredrick Douglass, like Phillis Wheatley, was born a slave. Unlike Phillis Wheatley, Fredrick Douglass’ owners treated him brutally. His owner shipped him from home to home working for cruel men. One of the mistresses he worked for taught him to read and write until she was ordered to stop by her husband. Fredrick wrote about what he knew about, slavery. His autobiography and speeches were published after his escape to England. His only fiction work was also about slavery. His need to document the plight of slaves and fight for the abolishment of slavery was apparent in all of his writings. Alexandre Dumas the writer of The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers was from France (Goetz). Even though Alexandre had been born a freeman, his grandmother was a slave. Alexandre grew up in the world of his white father. Thus his writing reflected 19th century France. The revolution in France had redefined justice. You see in The Count of Monte Cristo and The Man in the Iron Mask the new democratic views sweeping France at Alexandre Dumas’ time. Even the black writers not mentioned in this essay wrote about their plight at the time. Before the Harlem Renaissance black writers faced hardship, whether they were slaves or not. Even the best master could not help a writer they did not see as an equal. Each writer before the Harlem Renaissance faced a bias audience.

Friday, September 27, 2019

Observing K-3 Science Activities & Observing K-3 Math Activities Coursework

Observing K-3 Science Activities & Observing K-3 Math Activities - Coursework Example For instance, increasing their proficiency would mean sitting down them individually or in small groups and explaining the concepts to them through real-life methodology. Collaborating is undoubtedly essential in order to thrive in any profession as the thoughts of ideas, knowledge, and practices are exchanged. Quite often, students struggle to socialize in a pre-dominant learning environment as I witnessed this first hand. Whiteboards, technical stimulation were used. In addition, an application was used to teach children in a better manner so their minds can be stimulated. This was crucial to their learning development because the kids interacted with it. g. What types of questions were used during the lesson? What research-based strategies are being used to promote critical and higher order thinking? Content area vocabulary? Do the techniques and strategies used promote diversity, openness, inquiry, and support? Many open-ended questions were utilized to answer these questions. First and foremost, kids were given problems that they needed to solve in a highly skilled manner. Additionally, students were propagated to promote critical thinking by thinking outside the box. I like the fact that they can use other techniques instead of boring drills. Yes, I think they do promote openness and the desire to learn. The purpose of education is to ensure that students become good moral citizens of society and make sound decisions that can facilitate humanity. It is clear to point out those morals such honesty, integrity, and morals are derived from important nurture. Another purpose of education is to collaborate and engage in peer tutoring. Peer tutoring is an essential learning tool because it facilitates the process of collaboration and writing a social artifact. Peer tutoring is an extremely innovate idea since it combines collaborative and cognitive learning as students learned from tutors and tutors

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Islamic Banking as a banking system that follows the ways of Islam Essay

Islamic Banking as a banking system that follows the ways of Islam - Essay Example As such, financial products are also designed according to such principles. Accumulating wealth is not against the law, but making money through unfair or fast means is not supported. Although Islamic banking is conservative in many ways, it is also safe. In Islamic banking, all transactions must be interest-free. There are several sets of rules for transactions, leasing, joint ventures, and partnerships. These laws are formulated with the Islamic religious sayings of the Quran and religious scholars in mind. In Islamic Banking, an Ijarah denotes the activity of leasing a property, is conducted by the bank. The bank takes possession of the property from its owner and leases it to a third party for rent; no interest is charged, as per the stated norms of Islamic banking. Even the maintenance cost is borne by the bank. The Islamic regulation is against making money through unfair means. For example, if the lessee pays a fine for late payment, the money goes to charity, not to the bank. Transactions in Islamic banking are considered Salam if the buyer pays the full amount to the seller. It is important that the buyer demonstrate that he is not in debt. Islamic banking offer many products that must be passed by the Shariah Supervisory Board. This board regulates and coordinates the operational activities of banking institutions functioning under Islamic banking rules (Hassan & Lewis, 2006, p. 1-4). Ijarah The term Ijarah refers to a lease, wage, or rent. It denotes the opportunity to use an asset or service at a predetermined price or wage. Under this type of contact, the bank makes the asset available to the customers by lending them for a fixed time period and at a fixed price or rent. Ijarah is derived from the word Al Ajr, which means compensation, substitutes, or counter value. It involves transferring the usufruct but not the ownership, of the asset. In Islamic banking, the bank and the customers are involved in the lending contract. The bank transfers the us ufruct to another person for a predefined period of time and consideration. Under Ijarah, the asset to be lent should be non-perishable and non-consumable. Any assets that do not follow the criteria cannot be treated as subjects for lending. Ijarah is used in two different kinds of situations: first, for providing services to other people in exchange for wages, and second, as hired services, where the employer is called 'musta jir' and the employee is called 'ajir'. The second situation deals with the lending of assets by banks to the third party in return for fixed rental charges from the party. Both types of Ijarah are formulated according to the laws of Islam. Ijarah is not only a mode of financing but also a medium for sales. This form of transaction is also followed in other, non-Islamic western countries (Ahmed, I. & Shabbir, n. d., p. 26). Ijarah wa Iktina In this type of lease, the leasor enters into an agreement with the lessee and agrees to buy the property after the compl etion of the leased period. The contract can be terminated even before the due date for the completion of the lease. The lessee can also buy the property before the date of commencement. The purchase price is determined by the market value of the asset. Ijarah Thumma Al-Bai This combines both the contracts that are Ijarah, meaning leasing and Bai, which means the purchase of the asset. Ij

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Rights, Social Justice and Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Rights, Social Justice and Diversity - Essay Example More recently, conflicts arising out of such immigration are something that researchers and pressure groups are getting engaged in. In this regard, Weiner (1992) advocated the importance of addressing the issues of country hostility, especially through its people, given the fact that migrants contribute to the economic and cultural growth of the nation they immigrate to. As opposed to the International Political Economic Framework, Weiner explains the phenomenon of international migration through a Security-Stability Framework. The latter is more about the national policies that are aimed for the welfare of the migrant population; about social concerns that have a bearing on the internal political and social stability; and therefore in effect is about social inclusion and exclusion in its elucidation on international immigration and its fall out in the world order. The British Government is also of this understanding - migration is no longer an individual decision; rather it is contingent on a host of geo-politico-economic factors. Emigration has complex and far reaching consequences in the economic, political a nd social base of the host country, and should therefore be viewed in an interactive framework. The United Kingdom is usually considered a much preferred option among emigrants, especially from Asia or the CIS countries (Spencer, 2007). Migration and its Social Repercussions Migration does breed resentment among the natives. While the host country and its populace resents the migrant work force, especially those who are 'skilled' and come at a lower cost, the immigrants face discrimination in their access to essential services like health, education and employment. Immigrants face discrimination on grounds of culture, religion, gender, age and also colour. Conditions of entry posed intentionally by the host country at times are extremely restrictive, and they whittle down a migrants own (as well as those of his dependants), entry into the social and economic fabric of the country. The discriminatory practices, which so far were contained within the social fabric, suddenly burst open post 9/11. The media have helped highlight a lot of such instances. Most natives, including those in UK believe that migration is not beneficial for their country as it leads to a lower wages and unemployment (Spencer, 2007). Asian communities, who form a large part of the im migrant population in UK, argue otherwise, highlighting their contribution. The health care services in UK would quite literally collapse without the overseas doctors and nurses; and some schools would not remain open (Spencer, 2003). As a result, policy makers have little option but to accept this incursion into their economy and try navigating policies that not only provide them with a welfare state but also do not damage the native psyche. One of the most advocated ways is to push forth the agenda of Social Inclusion. This paper discusses the extent of social exclusion with particular reference to United Kingdom. It therefore examines international migration, its basis and the underpinnings, and its links

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Life essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Life - Essay Example Right from a young age I have been taught these values and constantly reminded to follow them in my day to day life. As I have learnt the importance of these values early on it has been easy to emulate them and ever since I truly understood these moral values and culture I have been striving to adhere to them. This life is a god given gift and we ought to spend it wisely and earnestly. Through my life experiences I have learnt that leading a principled life has a lot of positive effect on the mental and physical well-being of the individual. In addition it also helps to cope with difficult situations in life. I have also faced several setbacks in life but the moral values and principles that I believe in have given me the strength and courage to face them with a positive spirit and overcome them with right reasoning and tact. Youngsters of the present generation are being lured into all kinds of addictive habits that have damaging effects on their lives and career. It would be very tempting to tread the negative path initially; the actual effects would only be felt later on in life but then it would be too late. Leading a principled life would teach us self-control which would help to refrain from such activities. There is no doubt that the modern world is becoming more unsafe and ruthless due to the dwindling beliefs in family values, culture, tradition and ethics. Violence and criminal activities have also reached a peak. When closely observed the people behind these activities would be those who have lived their lives without any set values or principles which are largely imbibed from family. The increasing divorce rates resulting in broken families can also be attributed to similar factors and children hailing from broken homes by and large resort to deviant activities. Life has become more materialistic and people are ready to go to any extent to achieve materialistic comforts in life. In the process people forget that apart

Monday, September 23, 2019

Childhood since the Nineteenth Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Childhood since the Nineteenth Century - Essay Example Their shift from villages to cities made them financially independent and their verisimilitude of developing nuclear family increased manifolds. Their individualism supported such a family system that would have them and their children alone. Having such short families, parents were in a position to devote more time to their children as there was little influence of neighbors or relatives. According to Stone (1977), the family system experienced a considerable change from 1450 to 1800 in that it became more and more narrow and closed. Earlier families had three or more generations living together, while the modernistic families had a nuclear structure, with only the parents and immediate children living together. Thus parents became more responsible for their children as there were no grandparents to take care of the children in their absence. Stone (1977) asserted that the concept of developing a nuclear family was accompanied by a rise in the trend of ‘affective individualism ’ that encouraged individuals to choose marital partners for themselves. Thus, each member of the family was recognized as unique and naturally, the children gained full attention of the parents. Stone (1977) also was of the view that the industrial revolution played a big role in the rise of the nuclear family system. As parents became more and more careful about their children from 1450 to 1800, the child mortality rates ultimately began to decline in the 1800s. This caused the parents to be more careful about their children’s health and safety because in the earlier centuries when child mortality rates were quite high, the death of a child was visualized as a solid reason why parents should not develop an association with their children. Philippe Aries played a pivotal role in mapping the childhood history through his writing published in the Centuries of Childhood in 1962 (Roberts, 2008). That ‘terra incognita’ stirred up the emotions of many philosoph ers, writers, theorists and educationalists that led them to propose many a theories and concepts of modern childhood that shaped our perception of childhood as we know it today. An in-depth analysis of the childhood literature and conceptions from old centuries portrays a very sad image of childhood in those times. The commencement of childhood as a social construction can be dated back to the sixteenth century. Aries was of the view that the fundamental difference between the modern childhood and its conception in earlier centuries is that adults were far less careful about children in earlier centuries than they are now. Children were neither educated, nor were they treated differently from adults. Parents did not feel the need to attend the children, offer them their time and affection that the children required. The activities children indulged in the Middle Ages and also, the earlier modern era were not much different from those of the adults. A child was considered a child ti ll the time he/she turned seven, though the child was thought of as miniature adult before that. After the age of seven, children were expected to and often forced into practically helping their parents with the farming or looking after their fields and livestock.  

Sunday, September 22, 2019

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 9

History - Essay Example When the continued governance of the Province of Canada under the terms of the 1840 Act of Union had become impracticable, a Great Coalition of parties was formed to reform the political system. The first Confederation was held at Charlottetown in 1864 followed by the second at Quebec City where the idea of a confederation was explained. Confederation of Canada was the process under which Canada was formed as a confederation on July 1, 1867, when Queen Victoria gave royal assent to the British North America Act on March 29, 1867 (Wikipedia). This Act united the Province of Canada with the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. While the BNA Act gave autonomy to Canada, foreign policy remained with the British. This was supposed to improve relations and make the economy stronger. Conscription in WWI worsened the French-British relations. In times of difficulty and dispute law gives a direction. In 1917, The Military Service Act placed restrictions on who could be called for mandatory military service (Alberta, 2002). Farmers were exempted, as their service was required to produce food. This was known as the conscription. The French did not want to go to the war but Canada was drawn into it being a part of the British Empire. Most French Canadian voted against the conscription but the conscription was evoked nevertheless. Later, when due to rising casualties during the war, people kept away from enrolment, the exemptions were removed. This upset the French in Canada and further strained the French-English relations. Front de Liberation du Quebec (FLQ) was founded in 1963 with a view to gain independence for Quebec even if terrorism had to be resorted to (Historica). The FLQ abducted the British Diplomat James Richard Cross and then the Provincial Minister Pierre Laporte on October 5 and 10 respectively. Negotiations between the FLQ and the Quebec government did not make

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Stable President Essay Example for Free

Stable President Essay 1. Do presidents have so much power that they can almost guarantee reelection to more than two terms? Instead of starting a second term knowing he could not serve again, the president would be able to keep congress and the public guessing, thereby retain their influence until the last minute. There was a great belief early on of steadiness for America, and to achieve that there must be a stable president, so it was more likely back then to be reelected opposed to getting change. Presidents were arguably more effective if their opponents assumed they would be running for another term. 2. Does the two-term limit weaken the president’s ability to influence the course of the nation in the second term? Washington’s two term presidency was applauded, but the founders did not encourage a term limit. They argued that such a limit would have weakened the public’s voice in keeping the president honest. Presidents are then again, more effective if their allies and opponents assume they may be running for another term. Otherwise, they will lose their influence. 3. What checks and balances ensure that presidents can be held accountable even if they are lame ducks? The office carries such great power that lame duck status may keep presidents from abusing their power even as lame ducks, they retain significant influence on Capitol Hill in their fifth and sixth years. The founders believed that elections serve to discipline the president for his actions, while the four-year term provides enough time to achieve policy results. They believed that steadiness in administration would help the country survive its early years, while giving the president a reason to create policies that would help the nation long into the future. PAGE 353 4. In one or two paragraphs explain the president’s responsibility in each of the three roles discussed in the chapter Presidents work as Morale Builders by projecting a sense of national unity and authority. Through their everyday actions, they are bale to arouse despair, hope, honor or dishonor. Building more morale simply means unlocking a sense of public good for the nation. For example, the weeks following September 11th Bush needed to boost the morale of America to instill the hope among all the pain. Presidents work as Agenda Setters by for proposing initiatives in foreign policy and economic growth. They seek out new campaigns to later be defined by office staff. They make new economic policy to keep unemployment low, social policy to support legislation, and national security to uphold strong presidential authority in the area. Presidents work as Persuaders through using skillful campaigning to win over the hearts of Americans. They have reduced the number of press conferences over the past five decades, and instead public press conferences have gained leverage. PAGE 354 12. List the three main causes of conflict between the president and Congress Presidential Mandates is a cause of conflict because the winner-take-all system tends to make the president’s popular vote look larger than it really is. Mandates also determine public approval for whether or not the President is just in opinion on specific policies. Public Approval causes conflict due to the depending on public approval and how it usually falls over a given time. Presidents benefit instead from rally points, spikes in public approval following a domestic crisis. This could boost a President’s followers over a very short amount of time due to the events happening in the present. Reputation often causes conflict by the fact that the longer presidents stay in office, the better they get at being president. They can learn how to persuade people by giving them what they want to hear, how to show the right image to the people, and how to operate. Presidents also gain knowledge of how to shield the bad.

Friday, September 20, 2019

The Evolution Of The Piano Music Essay

The Evolution Of The Piano Music Essay Since the dawn of man music has been played, enjoyed and practiced, and through its practice the instruments used have changed greatly. Throughout the years the piano has changed greatly and as a result many different types have been created, with the creation of new pianos famous artists have chosen to use them for their styles of music, pianos have been used in many genres of music as a result of their various types and the sound produced. The first instrument that relates to the piano is called the Dulcimer, it is considered to be the ancestor to early versions of the piano due to its similar qualities. The dulcimer is played by striking hammers on a series of strings tuned over a flat soundboard. The first actual piano was called the clavichord the first models were build around 1400 but wasnt made popular until three centuries later in the music of Bach when a key is pressed, a vertical brass strip is lifted toward a pair of strings. The virginal which is a small Harpsichord (or instrument whose strings are plucked) was the next advent in the piano; it was louder than the clavichord but lacked u buts dynamic variety. Although originally created in Italy the Spinet was perfected in Britain around the late seventeenth century, the jack mechanism plucks the strings just as the virginal, but the wind shape permits longer strings, increasing the size and expanding the range to as much as five octaves. First created in the fifteenth century, the Harpsichord reached its peak in the period of Bach and Handel. The Harpsichord has longer strings and sounds louder than the clavichord although it has the shape of the modern grand piano. Around 1709, Bartolommeo Cristofori built several instruments in the harpsichord shape but with hammer mechanisms surprisingly like the modern piano action. Because players could control soft and loud which was impossible on plucked keyboard instruments, Cristofori named this instrument the Pianoforte. During the time of Beethoven around the eighteenth century piano builders began to extend the keyboard. Two other important developments were the escapement action for faster repetition of notes and the damper and soft pedals. Pedals were often added to produce exotic effects. During the eighteenth century, many builders tried to apply the upright from to the pianoforte. In 1800 the first satisfactory uprights were invented. The square grand piano was originally designed by German builders around the seventeenth century, they tried to apply the cristoforis pianoforte to the traditional rectangular shape of the clavichord. The Square piano was popular until the late eighteen hundreds an d early nineteen hundreds. During the nineteenth century the piano continued to become more powerful and responsive. Some of the greater improvements were the double-repetition action of the Sebastien Erard which allows very rapid repetition; and the full cast-iron frame developed by Alphaeus Babcock. These developments are the basis for todays modern pianos. The pianos of today incorporate the best qualities of early instruments. Cross stringing which is a way to achieve greater richness of tone by passing more strings over the center of the soundboard. The sostentenuto or middle pedal was introduced in the late nineteenth century, permitting greater musical coloring. The Baroque period, or the time between 1600 and 1700 where new styles if art and architecture flourished in Europe, there where several great musical artists who became known as famous composers. Several of the composers where George Fredric Handel, Antonio Vivaldi and Johann Sebastian Bach. George Fredric Handel was born the son of a barber; Handel ditched a career in law to pursue his love for music. Skilled at the organ, he wrote several church pieces before he acquired a job from prince Ernst of Hanover as a court musician. Not much is known Antonio Vivaldi. But it is know that he wrote many pieces for the church, about 640 all together. He also taught music at several schools. But near the end of his life he lost support and contacts and died an poor man. Johann Sebastian Bach came from a long line of musicians but was the first to become famous outside of his home town. Bach was extremely particular about his music. Often times he would destroy his compositions that he didnt f ind worthy, because of this many of his pieces been lost. His work was very unique, and his use of intertwining melodies and the fugue are trademarks of his genius. During the classical age many advancements where made in the art of music and as these advancements where made new great composers rose to take advantage of them. Joseph Haydn began his career in music at a very young age he had a wonderful singing voice. Eventually his voice broke and his singing career ended, afterwards he switched his focus into composing music. In 1790 he moved to Vienna which he made into the nexus of classical music and taught young composers such as Mozart and Beethoven. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is considered to be the prince of classical music. Has countless pieces of literature, movies, musicals and plays dedicated to him. He wrote his first symphony at the age of 5 he toured Europe with his father and sister as a novelty act but eventually he grew up and the novelty was gone. From there forward his natural skill at music carried him and as a student of Haydn and Mozart he blossomed into a top notch opera writer, which was his only source of income for many years. His later teaching career was not enough to support him and he died a poor man. Ludwig von Beethoven was not near as talented as Mozart but became known as another child prodigy. At the age of 14 he was given the role of assistant teacher and organist. He received tutoring from both Haydn and Mozart. Although he had a good childhood at the age of 19 his life quickly took a turn for the worse with the death of his mother, he was then left with the role of supporting his entire family. As a result of his troubled youth he became a very disturbed and angry person, this was portrayed in his music which was fiery and emotional. Felix Mendelssohn was born into a rich and musically talented family and as a result was introduced into music at a young age. He was very talented and his music was very popular at there time of writing. His piano concerto in G minor And My Heart will go on is considered to be the most played concerto of all time. His music for the play A Midsummer nights Dream in addition to its popularity during its time is still played at modern weddings. Mendelssohn often played pieces by Bach and is credited with bringing back popularity to his music. Johannes Brahms lived during the romantic age but wrote classical music. At the beginning of his carreer he played mostly in bars and as a result he gained the knowledge of many dance tunes. Once Mendelssohn graduated from playing in bars and brothels he started serious composing he was considered a genius for h is music. During the romantic era many changes where made to the way the piano was used. Frederic Chopin was one of those artists, his pieces for the piano the piano where groundbreaking and pushed the limits of what the piano was thought to be capable of. Is innovations completely changed how the piano was treated in music. Franz Lizt was another is considered to be one of the most talented pianists the world has ever seen. His concerts where often completely sold out. Because of the way he played he often has a second piano prepared incase he broke the first one. The piano in its various forms have been used throughout time as entertainment for many cultures. As a result of its popularity and interest from innovative artists it has changed greatly, and more modern variations are used in many genres of music.

Thursday, September 19, 2019

The Structure of Wholeness :: Ontology Atoms Papers

The Structure of Wholeness Using a part-whole-calculus the vague concept of wholeness is rendered precisely as the structure of an atomic boolean lattice. The so-defined prototypical structure of wholeness has the status of a category, since every element of our experience may be considered as an intended application of it. This will be illustrated using examples from different ontological spheres. The hypothetical and therefore fallible character of the structure is shown in its inadequacy in grasping quantum logical facts. This demands a differentiation of wholeness. The defined structure may be seen as circular in two respects: On the one hand it is the precondition for the understanding of its own syntactic and semantic basics, on the other hand there exists a mutual defineability between its atoms, which leads us to the thesis that wholeness cannot be defined in a non-circular manner. Introduction In this paper I attempt both to explicate the popular, but vague notion of wholeness and to point out its meaning for ontology. To begin with, I’ll give a brief survey of the essentials: In accord with an elementary intuition of ‘wholeness’ I introduce an implicit axiomatic definition of its structure, which proves to be a familiar Boolean-lattice. This internal view of the concept of wholeness is followed by a more philosophical external view, which looks at the structure in its context. It will be shown that the structure corresponds to the criteria of an ontological category, namely consistence, adequacy, content and coherence, so that we are justified in speaking of the ‘category of wholeness’. This feature leads to some interesting results: As a consequence of the adequacy of a category the structure turns out to be a model on its own. The self-application leads on the level of the axioms to the boolean lattice of all substructures and on the lev el of the terms of axioms to semantical boolean lattices, which may seen as basic units for the whole language. Thus the understanding of the structure of ‘wholeness’ takes for granted that there is a pre-understanding of the very same. Furthermore, there is another kind of circular understanding on the level of the atoms of the structure, because there exists a mutual defineability between the atoms, which cannot be eliminated without leaving the wholeness. But even if we try to leave it, we enter another wholeness, so that circularity is inevitable in the end. A. Intuition First of all, let me describe the leading intuition of ‘wholeness’.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Sub-Saharan Africa Essay -- Africa Geography Essays Geographical

Sub-Saharan Africa Africa is the second largest of the earth's seven continents, covering about twenty-two percent of the world's total land area. From its northern most point, to its southern most tip is the distance of nearly five thousand miles. Africa is both north and south of the equator. The Atlantic Ocean is located west of the continent, and the Indian Ocean is on the east. Width of the continent is also nearly five thousand miles. Although Africa is so large, much of it is inhabitable. Desert soils, which have little organic content, cover large areas. The Sahara Desert, in the northern part, covers more than one fourth of Africa, and the Kalahari Desert is in the southern part of the continent. These two deserts are a natural detriment to the African continent because they make it difficult to reach the inland where most of the people live. Although Africa is relatively close to Europe, travel by land over the Sahara desert is very prohibitive. Another topographical feature that also isolate s the central region of Africa is the coastline. Africa has a regular coastline characterized by few indentations. Because of the smooth coastline, natural harbors were non-existent. Today, however, there are important coastal cities, such as Lagos and Dakar. With the exception of the Mediterranean coast, most of the coastline is low-lying , generally narrow and rising sharply to high elevations. The African climate and topography varies greatly. Although temperatures are usually high, due to being so close to the equator, rainfall, soil quality and elevations are of various degrees. Because most of the African continent has not been covered by water for millions of years, soils have developed according to their weathering e... ...bances began to emerge, and the economy began to drop. Unrest cost many lives, until demands for change were heard and the political system was revised. In 1994, the South African people went to the polls for the first time and held a democratic election in which Nelson Mandela became president. The country of South Africa has made strides in healing their broken country. Economic ways started in the nineteenth century, still have a hold on the countries of the sub-Sahara today. These countries are all impoverished and have seen horrific civil wars, however, the general consensus is that they are making slow improvements in their economy. The starvation, overpopulation and health problems are still very evident. Perhaps continued assistance coupled with education and protection will keep them on the road to stability and more rewarding lives for their citizens.

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Kants Views on Enlightenment Essay -- Philosophy

Kant's Views on Enlightenment The best summary of Kant's view of Enlightenment lies in the first paragraph of his essay "An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?": Sapere Aude. Translated 'dare to know,' the phrase "is the motto of enlightenment." For Kant, enlightenment means rising from the self-imposed stupor which substitutes obedience for reason and which atrophies man's ability to think for himself and develop his natural capacities. Laziness and cowardice prevent man from enlightening himself, an activity which becomes harder over time since man becomes comfortable and content in his stupor. Likening mankind to livestock, Kant cites the army officer, the pastor, and the physician as guardians who paralyze man's freedom by demanding strict obedience and providing ready-made answers. However, Kant stops short of advocating total civil disobedience; the solider must not disobey the orders of his superiors just as the citizen must not refuse to pay his taxes—such actions would catalyze da ngerous unrest. Instead, both parties should be at total liberty to addre... Kant's Views on Enlightenment Essay -- Philosophy Kant's Views on Enlightenment The best summary of Kant's view of Enlightenment lies in the first paragraph of his essay "An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?": Sapere Aude. Translated 'dare to know,' the phrase "is the motto of enlightenment." For Kant, enlightenment means rising from the self-imposed stupor which substitutes obedience for reason and which atrophies man's ability to think for himself and develop his natural capacities. Laziness and cowardice prevent man from enlightening himself, an activity which becomes harder over time since man becomes comfortable and content in his stupor. Likening mankind to livestock, Kant cites the army officer, the pastor, and the physician as guardians who paralyze man's freedom by demanding strict obedience and providing ready-made answers. However, Kant stops short of advocating total civil disobedience; the solider must not disobey the orders of his superiors just as the citizen must not refuse to pay his taxes—such actions would catalyze da ngerous unrest. Instead, both parties should be at total liberty to addre...

Monday, September 16, 2019

Commentary on Ten Trillion and Counting

Commentary on â€Å"Ten Trillion and Counting† The video is a well demonstration of debt issues that the U. S. government faces. It starts with the tough economic condition that Obama inherited from Bush. Then, it talks about Bush’s centerpiece economic agenda: cut taxes, as well as the way Bush always put politics ahead of economics. After a serious of expenses related to two big wars; two enormous tax cuts; and a variety of new entitlement program signed by Bush had been spent, the economic began to go down.He not only squandered the entire budget surplus he had inherited, but started to confronting a stubborn recession and a steadily escalating budget deficit. Next, the video shows the bitterly partisan fight over Obama’s expensive economic recovery plan. The Republicans worried about if the plan goes well, they will get no credits for anything they have done. So they strongly disagree with this huge amount of recovery expenses. The main issue regarding of thi s plan is about reform healthcare in order to save money in the long run.However, it is difficult to persuade interest groups and politicians who have been battling over healthcare for a long time. Besides, it is especially tough to talk to Americans about the government are going to spend less on benefits in a recession time. In the end, this video talks about Obama’s budget, and the rigorous debt deficit condition that the U. S. is going through. The reason I think the â€Å"Ten Trillion and Counting† is a well explanation of the debt deficit is because I learned a lot from this video. Before I watched this video I have no idea about the serious debt deficit problem that the U.S. is facing right now. The only thing I realized from my personal experience is that the U. S. government has relaxed the policy regarding to the threshold of international student. Several years ago, it is not easy for Chinese student to go abroad. Which reflects that the U. S. government rea lly wants to stimulate the economy by increase more demand. International student is a good resource of money. Another â€Å"interesting thing† I found in my daily life is that not only numerous retailers put advertisement like â€Å"buy 2 get 2 free,† some luxury brand starts to go on sale as well.It is rarely to see decades ago for a brand like Burberry put promotion in front of its showcase. From this perspective, people’s buying power has decreased sharply. Which results in less investments and staffs cut-off made by companies. In addition, a really serious recession was already happened. The stock market collapse, the banking system is imploded. Although keep borrowing from foreign countries is a way to buffer these problems, it is not a permanent way to solve the economy. So the U. S.Government needs to take some actions to decrease debt deficit. According to the video, there are two ways to reduce deficit, either by higher taxes or lower benefits. Today, forty percent of budget pays for Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security. However, the first baby boomer is getting retired sooner and they are claiming early retirement for social security. Moreover, as they grow order, they will make claims on Medicare. The U. S. government cannot afford these promises made before, especially in this kind of terrible economic downturn conditions.The Obama’s administration tries to bring deficit down by reforming healthcare in order to save money in the long run. In my opinion, the recovery plan needs to have a try. As Obama said: â€Å" the most important things we can do for our budget crisis right now is to make sure the economy does not continue to tank. And that is why passing the economic recovery plan is the right thing to do. Even though it is expensive. † In the short run, the debt deficit may tend to be bigger than Bush’s time. But after the healthcare has been taken, the economy will benefits in the long run.

Factors Affecting Organizational Structure Essay

A company’s organizational structure can determine its success or failure upon entry into the market. The decisions a small-business owner makes in choosing management and employee roles within the company help determine the organizational structure and can have a large influence on the culture within the business. If structure doesn’t reflect the owner’s business goals, employees may have a hard time working successfully for the company. Change management process Research-based, holistic model for managing the people side of changewww.change-management.com Size of Business As a small-business owner, the size of your company can have a significant influence on the organizational structure of your company. If you’re running a sole proprietorship with a few employees, you may not even need a well-defined organizational structure if you perform all the management functions of the business. A larger organization requires more structure to allow its different components to communicate effectively with one another. For example, a full-service restaurant requires a kitchen manager, floor manager, bar manager and general manager to run each division within the establishment and keep the employees in each division working to task. Stage of Development The stage of your company’s development can dictate its needs regarding organizational structure. The youth stage of a company’s life cycle emphasizes growth and the needs of the customer. This may require you as a business owner to develop an organizational structure around increased customer service, including a system to handle complaints and develop better service strategies. At this stage you’re still very much in control of the majority of the company’s day-to-day business decisions. By contrast, in the midlife stage of development, your company may require more levels of management to handle the growing departments with the company. Organizational structure may feel more mechanized with you as the owner somewhat removed from the day-to-day running of the company. Reflecting Organizational Culture The business culture you wish to project to your employees can dictate aspects of your company’s organizational structure. For example, a company with multiple redundancies in the management infrastructure may prize procedure- and rule-following, whereas a company with a more lax management approach may encourage a culture of personal ownership among employees. Each culture has its place and benefits. A construction or manufacturing company has greater need of organizational structure and redundancy in the management infrastructure than a law firm where employees are working independently under the loose rubric of senior partners in management roles. Overall Business Strategy How your company intends to enter the market and become successful can play a role in how you choose to set up its organizational structure. For example, an aggressive marketing and product-placement strategy may require multiple department heads to coordinate efforts and ensure no portion of the company’s larger plan lags behind the rest. Alternatively, a more methodical development strategy may require a smaller, more focused organizational structure, so you can actively monitor all the details of a plan and survey progress.

Sunday, September 15, 2019

Beneath the Pipes Essay

When Ralph’s teacher Mrs. Pitt announced that his class was going on a field trip he felt a surge of happiness and there was an immediate buzz of excitement throughout the class of thirteen and fourteen year old children. However, the following words which escaped the teacher’s mouth did not engender the same kind of enthusiasm. The class were disappointed that visiting the brand new Monster Valley theme park, was not on the agenda. A curly ginger boy, whose surprisingly tall figure appeared to be made solely of knees and elbows, stepped off the bus as his eye caught the sign that read ‘NORTH HELLWITH SEWAGE WORKS’. Ralph sighed in chorus with his only friend Callum. Callum’s frame was stout and his pale face was painted with spots and freckles. The class was approached by a man who wore an unpleasant grin. â€Å"Good afternoon children†, his words penetrated like when a wooden chair is dragged across a gym floor. Ralph gave Callum a profound curious look and then turned his attention back to the leering man. â€Å"I am your guide for this tour of the sewage works, my name is Mr. Red†. On a closer inspection, it came to Ralph’s attention that the man had a tail which spouted from the back of his trousers. ‘Nobodies perfect’ thought Ralph. It seemed that Ralph was not the only pupil losing interest on the subject of how many light bulbs were in the various rooms of the works. Callum was trying to reach his attention. â€Å"Ralph, I’m bored† â€Å"Me too† came the reply. â€Å"I’m off† â€Å"No you’re not†, as Ralph said this he recalled memories of Callum achieving other inappropriate feats and began to wonder if this statement would stand. â€Å"Perhaps you are, but I’m not†. Callum glanced around him and when his teacher had turned her back he strolled away purposefully. Ralph moaned and darted after him like a lion that had its favourite luncheon snatched from under its nose. Ralph followed Callum into a pitch black room. â€Å"Callum, get here now!† â€Å"Are you scared?† â€Å"Of course not† â€Å"Come on then† there was a patter of feet and then Ralph heard a sudden, â€Å"AAAARRRRGGHHHH†. Ralph fell on the floor in terror and confusion. He began searching on hands and knees for his glasses which had fallen off his head. As he crawled he felt his hand squelch into something soft – without pausing to consider what this mess could have been he scampered on with an unpleasant smell surrounding him amidst the dark. â€Å"Callum?† he waited for three or four seconds to pass and then â€Å"Callum? Callum?† still there came no reply, Ralph’s stomach slipped past his trembling knees. In a dazed panic he darted upright and sprinted for the exit to find the rest of his class. What Ralph didn’t know, is that he was running the opposite way from which he entered†¦. Ralph fell with a thud and glanced back at the stairs he had fallen down. It was still very hard to see but there was an eerie red glow leaking from the walls. He began to whimper and it was not too long before his whimpers became tears. Ralph pulled himself together and dried his eyes with a chewed sleeve. He looked up at the stairs and remembered those dark rooms, so he took the alternative route and continued along the boardwalk he found himself on; he convinced himself that he would find someone – anyone to help him. But he didn’t. Finding the boardwalk spiralling downwards, Ralph broke into a sweat and started to run. A dim red glow lost itself in a mysterious humid fog. The walls began to deconstruct and develop to a cave wall. The red glow started to get brighter and brighter still as he tunnelled further beneath the ground. After what seemed like a lifetime, Ralph gratefully found himself at the opening to a huge chamber and he could hear faint voices in the distant. The first thing he noticed about the room was the disgusting smell of raw sewage. He ran to find the owners of the voices but as he got closer he realised the talking was exceptionally deep and croaky. He launched himself round several corners to the increasingly loud sounds until, â€Å"OOOFFFFF† he was stopped dead in his tracks and fell to the cold hard floor. When he opened his eyes he screamed, â€Å"AAAARRRGH† he was staring into the eyes of a completely red demon which had two horns and a massive nose. Ralph was tall but it towered over him; it must have been three times his size and twenty times stronger. â€Å"LOOK WHAT WE GOT ‘ERE!† the beast snarled and beckoned to others just as threatening. â€Å"WHAT WE GONNA’ DO WITH ‘IM? BEEN A WHILE SINCE WE HAD ONE OF THESE†. â€Å"EAT ‘IM† said a second, Ralph squealed. â€Å"RIP HIS BONES APART† a large drop of saliva let go of the demon’s face onto Ralph’s leg. â€Å"NO, WE ‘AVE TO GIVE ‘IM TO THE KING, HE’D HAVE OUR TAILS IF HE EVER FOUND OUT WE ATE ‘IM WITHOUT SHARING†. Murmurs of understanding and self pity were heard amongst the gathering demons. Ralph felt himself hoisted up and they carried him off, he fought desperately with flying legs and arms. Ralph was launched into a cave walled cell with long iron bars at the front. A rusty door slammed shut behind him. He looked around the cell and to his terror; in the shadows he saw the shape of a demon. â€Å"RELAX†, it croaked, â€Å"THE NAMES GODFREY, GODFREY JONES – AND YOU ARE?† Ralph moved across the cell so a red beam of light fell on the demons face. It looked like he had been crying and for some reason, Ralph pitied him. â€Å"Ralph Marving† came the reply. And so the conversation continued for some time, of course, time was not an important factor in the demon world. Ralph became to like and admire Godfrey. Godfrey had been locked up because he was one of the rebels who did not believe in feeding and building houses out of human waste. They were living amongst the hills in caves, hiding from the regular demon society. The deep talk with Godfrey was not to last too long, they were interrupted by the wailing of a child. Shouts and curses were heard everywhere as the boy was thrown in the cell. Ralph smiled. It was Callum. They rejoiced when they saw each other and then the introductions began. â€Å"We’re getting out of here† â€Å"How?† â€Å"These demons may be powerful, but they’re not likely contenders for brain of Britain.† â€Å"OI!† â€Å"No offence meant† â€Å"He’s watching us†, the huddle shifted further away from the guard standing at the door. â€Å"So?† â€Å"Callum, you’re going to wind up Godfrey. Godfrey you’re going to hit Callum, only you’re not really hitting him. Okay?† â€Å"I SUPPOSE† â€Å"The guard will hopefully open the door and try to stop the fight and I will hide and launch myself on his back and grab the keys from his belt.† â€Å"Sounds easy enough† â€Å"Meanwhile, you two run past the guard and make for the exit I will let go of the demon and run. When I get past you, slam the door shut and I will lock it, right?† â€Å"Right† â€Å"RIGHT† Callum and Godfrey began their argument. It was clear that neither of them were natural actors. Yet sure enough, the door opened and in walked the guard. The next part of the plan, however, did not go accordingly. Ralph made a leap for the keys but the demon was too tall. It turned its unwanted attention towards Ralph, who backed off. Godfrey threw himself courageously at the demon the two of them fell plundering to the ground with a loud thud. The stout figure of Callum darted in and grabbed the keys. â€Å"YOU MUST GO! I CAN’T HOLD HIM DOWN† â€Å"No!† â€Å"THE HUMAN WORLD IS NOT MY WORLD, GO! I BELONG IN THE HILL CAVES†, Ralph would argue no more, he was grabbed by Callum and they ran and ran for an exit. He turned to look back and saw demons flooding into the cell and his heart felt heavy. After minutes of running they were exhausted but the way was clear. Fortunately, it was easy to find their way to the corridor that led upwards. Callum and Ralph paced themselves up the spiralling corridor with the red ambience growing thinner. The shouts behind them diminished. They eventually reached the boardwalk and were too tired to continue running so they came to a halt. â€Å"What time is it?† Callum lifted his chewed sleeve and his battered watch read, â€Å"Two minutes past three† they looked at each other in astonishment. The six hours which had passed seemed to have stretched to days. â€Å"If we’re quick we may just make the bus back to school† so the two of them, once again, heaved their bodies forward. When they arrived at the entrance to the sewage works, Callum heaved a sigh of relief. The air was cooler, fresher and moist, it strew itself on their faces gratefully. They spotted the class lining up next to the bus, it was apparent that a head count was being done. They tried to mingle into the group unnoticed but Mrs. Pitt was aware of their presence. â€Å"Callum, Ralph, where on Earth have you been?† she snapped. â€Å"Well -â€Å", Ralph begun, then he considered the reality of his adventure. â€Å"We – got lost†. The class boarded the bus and Ralph and Callum landed themselves on a tattered seat. Ralph breathed on the window and wiped it. Just for one moment, he thought he saw a distant red object, disappearing over the valley towards the hills which stood boldly above the landscape.

Saturday, September 14, 2019

The Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a project undertaken with a goal to understand the genetic make-up of the human species by determining the DNA sequence of the human genome and the genome of a few model organisms. The project began in 1990 and, by some definitions, it was completed in 2003. It was one of the biggest investigational projects in the history of science. The mapping of the human genes was an important step in the development of medicines and other aspects of health care.Most of the genome DNA sequencing for the Human Genome Project was done by researchers at universities and research centers in the the United States and Great Britain, with other genome DNA sequencing done independently by the private company Celera Genomics. The HGP was originally aimed at the more than three billion nucleotides contained in a haploid reference human genome. Recently several groups have announced efforts to extend this to diploid human genomes including the International HapMap Project, Applied Biosystems, Perlegen, Illumina, JCVI, Personal Genome Project, and Roche-454.The â€Å"genome† of any given individual (except for identical twins and cloned animals) is unique; mapping â€Å"the human genome† involves sequencing multiple variations of each gene. The project did not study all of the DNA found in human cells; some heterochromatic areas (about 8% of the total) remain un-sequenced. International HGP Initiation of the Project was the culmination of several years of work supported by the Department of Energy, in particular workshops in 1984 [1] and 1986 and a subsequent initiative the Department of Energy. 2] This 1986 report stated boldly, â€Å"The ultimate goal of this initiative is to understand the human genome† and â€Å"Knowledge of the human genome is as necessary to the continuing progress of medicine and other health sciences as knowledge of human anatomy has been for the present state of medicine. † Candidate technologies w ere already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985. [3] James D. Watson was Head of the National Center for Human Genome Research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States starting from 1988.Largely due to his disagreement with his boss, Bernadine Healy, over the issue of patenting genes, he was forced to resign in 1992. He was replaced by Francis Collins in April 1993, and the name of the Center was changed to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) in 1997. The $3-billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the United States Department of Energy and the U. S. National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the international consortium comprised geneticists in China, France, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom.Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics (especially in sequence analysis), as well as major advances in com puting technology, a ‘rough draft' of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by then US president Bill Clinton and British Prime Minister Tony Blair on June 26, 2000). [4] Ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome in April 2003, 2 years earlier than planned. [5] In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project, when the sequence of the last chromosome was published in the journal Nature. 6] There are multiple definitions of the â€Å"complete sequence of the human genome†. According to some of these definitions, the genome has already been completely sequenced, and according to other definitions, the genome has yet to be completely sequenced. There have been multiple popular press articles reporting that the genome was â€Å"complete. † The genome has been completely sequenced using the definition employed by the International Human Genome Project. A graphical history of the human ge nome project shows that most of the human genome was complete by the end of 2003.However, there are a number of regions of the human genome that can be considered unfinished. First, the central regions of each chromosome, known as centromeres, are highly repetitive DNA sequences that are difficult to sequence using current technology. The centromeres are millions (possibly tens of millions) of base pairs long, and for the most part these are entirely un-sequenced. Second, the ends of the chromosomes, called telomeres, are also highly repetitive, and for most of the 46 chromosome ends these too are incomplete.We do not know precisely how much sequence remains before we reach the telomeres of each chromosome, but as with the centromeres, current technology does not make it easy to get there. Third, there are several loci in each individual's genome that contain members of multigene families that are difficult to disentangle with shotgun sequencing methodologies – these multigen e families often encode proteins important for immune functions. It is likely that the centromeres and telomeres will remain un-sequenced until new technology is developed that facilitates their sequencing.Other than these regions, there remain a few dozen gaps scattered around the genome, some of them rather large, but there is hope that all these will be closed in the next couple of years. In summary: our best estimates of total genome size indicate that about 92% of the genome has been completed . Most of the remaining DNA is highly repetitive and unlikely to contain genes, but we cannot truly know until we sequence all of it. Understanding the functions of all the genes and their regulation is far from complete.The roles of junk DNA, the evolution of the genome, the differences between individuals, and many other questions are still the subject of intense study by laboratories all over the world. Goals The goals of the original HGP were not only to determine more than 3 billion base pairs in the human genome with a minimal error rate, but also to identify all the genes in this vast amount of data. This part of the project is still ongoing, although a preliminary count indicates about 30,000 genes in the human genome, which is fewer than predicted by many scientists.Another goal of the HGP was to develop faster, more efficient methods for DNA sequencing and sequence analysis and the transfer of these technologies to industry. The sequence of the human DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the Internet. The U. S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as Genbank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins.Other organizations such as the University of California, Santa Cruz[1], and Ensembl[2] present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. Computer programs have been developed to analy ze the data, because the data themselves are difficult to interpret without such programs. The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in raw DNA sequence is called genome annotation and is the domain of bioinformatics.While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. The best current technologies for annotation make use of statistical models that take advantage of parallels between DNA sequences and human language, using concepts from computer science such as formal grammars. Another, often overlooked, goal of the HGP is the study of its ethical, legal, and social implications.It is important to research these issues and find the most appropriate solutions before they become large dilemmas whose effect will manifest in the form of major political concerns. All humans have unique gene sequences; therefore the data p ublished by the HGP does not represent the exact sequence of each and every individual's genome. It is the combined genome of a small number of anonymous donors. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences among individuals. Most of the current effort in identifying differences among individuals involves single nucleotide polymorphisms and the HapMap.How it was accomplished Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health in the United States, and the UK charity, the Wellcome Trust, who funded the Sanger Institute (then the Sanger Centre) in Great Britain, as well as numerous other groups from around the world. The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length. These pieces are called â€Å"bacterial artificial chromosomes†, or BACs, because they can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial DNA replication machinery.Each of these pieces was then sequenced separ ately as a small â€Å"shotgun† project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the â€Å"hierarchical shotgun† approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing. Celera Genomics HGP In 1998, a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter and his firm Celera Genomics.The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly funded project. Celera used a riskier technique called whole genome shotgun sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the three thousand million base pair human genome. Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on â€Å"only 200-300† genes, but later amended this to seeking â€Å"intellectual property protection† on â€Å"fully-characterized important structures† amounting to 100-300 targets.The firm eventually filed preliminary (â€Å"place-holder†) patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes. Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 â€Å"Bermuda Statement,† by releasing new data quarterly (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or commercial use of the data. In March 2000, President Clinton announced that the genome sequence could not be patented, and should be made freely available to all researchers.The statement sent Celera's stock plummeting and dragged down the biotechnology-heavy Nasdaq. The biotechnology sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days. Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until Feb ruary 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of Nature (which published the publicly funded project's scientific paper)[7] and Science (which published Celera's paper[8]) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence.These drafts covered about 83% of the genome (90% of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, press releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to ~92% of the sequence currently. The competition proved to be very good for the project, spurring the public groups to modify their strategy in order to accelerate progress. The rivals initially agreed to pool their data, but the agreement ell apart when Celera refused to deposit its data in the unrestricted public data base GenBank. Celera had incorporated the public data into their genome, but forbade the public effort to use Celera data. HGP is the most well known of many international genome projects aimed at sequencing the DNA of a specific organism. While the human DNA sequence offers the most tangible benefits, important developments in biology and medicine are predicted as a result of the sequencing of model organisms, including mice, fruit flies, zebrafish, yeast, nematodes, plants, and many microbial organisms and parasites.In 2004, researchers from the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC) of the HGP announced a new estimate of 20,000 to 25,000 genes in the human genome. [9] Previously 30,000 to 40,000 had been predicted, while estimates at the start of the project reached up to as high as 2,000,000. The number continues to fluctuate and it is now expected that it will take many years to agree on a precise value for the number of genes in the human genome. History In 1 976, the genome of the virus Bacteriophage MS2 was the first complete genome to be determined, by Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium). 10] The idea for the shotgun technique came from the use of an algorithm that combined sequence information from many small fragments of DNA to reconstruct a genome. This technique was pioneered by Frederick Sanger to sequence the genome of the Phage ? -X174, a tiny virus called a bacteriophage that was the first fully sequenced genome (DNA-sequence) in 1977. [11] The technique was called shotgun sequencing because the genome was broken into millions of pieces as if it had been blasted with a shotgun.In order to scale up the method, both the sequencing and genome assembly had to be automated, as they were in the 1980s. Those techniques were shown applicable to sequencing of the first free-living bacterial genome (1. 8 million base pairs) of Haemophilus influenzae in 1995 [12] and the first animal genome (~100 Mbp) [1 3] It involved the use of automated sequencers, longer individual sequences using approximately 500 base pairs at that time. Paired sequences separated by a fixed distance of around 2000 base pairs which were critical elements enabling the development f the first genome assembly programs for reconstruction of large regions of genomes (aka ‘contigs'). Three years later, in 1998, the announcement by the newly-formed Celera Genomics that it would scale up the shotgun sequencing method to the human genome was greeted with skepticism in some circles. The shotgun technique breaks the DNA into fragments of various sizes, ranging from 2,000 to 300,000 base pairs in length, forming what is called a DNA â€Å"library†. Using an automated DNA sequencer the DNA is read in 800bp lengths from both ends of each fragment.Using a complex genome assembly algorithm and a supercomputer, the pieces are combined and the genome can be reconstructed from the millions of short, 800 base pair fr agments. The success of both the public and privately funded effort hinged upon a new, more highly automated capillary DNA sequencing machine, called the Applied Biosystems 3700, that ran the DNA sequences through an extremely fine capillary tube rather than a flat gel. Even more critical was the development of a new, larger-scale genome assembly program, which could handle the 30-50 million sequences that would be required to sequence the entire human genome with this method.At the time, such a program did not exist. One of the first major projects at Celera Genomics was the development of this assembler, which was written in parallel with the construction of a large, highly automated genome sequencing factory. The first version of this assembler was demonstrated in 2000, when the Celera team joined forces with Professor Gerald Rubin to sequence the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster using the whole-genome shotgun method[14]. At 130 million base pairs, it was at least 10 times large r than any genome previously shotgun assembled.One year later, the Celera team published their assembly of the three billion base pair human genome. How it was accomplished The IHGSC used pair-end sequencing plus whole-genome shotgun mapping of large (~100 Kbp) plasmid clones and shotgun sequencing of smaller plasmid sub-clones plus a variety of other mapping data to orient and check the assembly of each human chromosome[7]. The Celera group tried â€Å"whole-genome shotgun† sequencing without using the additional mapping scaffolding[8], but by including shredded public data raised questions [15].Whose genome was sequenced? In the IHGSC international public-sector Human Genome Project (HGP), researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones from m any different libraries were used in the overall project, with most of those libraries being created by Dr.Pieter J. de Jong. It has been informally reported, and is well known in the genomics community, that much of the DNA for the public HGP came from a single anonymous male donor from Buffalo, New York (code name RP11). [16] HGP scientists used white blood cells from the blood of 2 male and 2 female donors (randomly selected from 20 of each) — each donor yielding a separate DNA library. One of these libraries (RP11) was used considerably more than others, due to quality considerations.One minor technical issue is that male samples contain only half as much DNA from the X and Y chromosomes as from the other 22 chromosomes (the autosomes); this happens because each male cell contains only one X and one Y chromosome, not two like other chromosomes (autosomes). (This is true for nearly all male cells not just sperm cells). Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continue in the International HapMap Project, whose goal is to identify patterns of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or â€Å"haps†).The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals: Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese people in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisms Humain (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe. In the Celera Genomics private-sector project, DNA from five different individuals were used for sequencing. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, Craig Venter, later acknowledged (in a public letter to the journal Science) that his DNA was one of those in the pool[17].On September 4th, 2007, a team led by Craig Venter, published his complete DNA sequence[18], unveiling the six-billion-letter genome of a single individual for the first time . Benefits The work on interpretation of genome data is still in its initial stages. It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human genome will provide new avenues for advances in medicine and biotechnology. Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished.For example, a number of companies, such as Myriad Genetics started offering easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast cancer, disorders of hemostasis, cystic fibrosis, liver diseases and many others. Also, the etiologies for cancers, Alzheimer's disease and other areas of clinical interest are considered likely to benefit from genome information and possibly may lead in the long term to significant advances in their management. There are also many tangible benefits for biological scientists.For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of cancer may have narrowed down his/her search to a particular gene. By visiti ng the human genome database on the worldwide web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) the three-dimensional structure of its product, its function(s), its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruit flies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, diseases associated with this gene or other datatypes.Further, deeper understanding of the disease processes at the level of molecular biology may determine new therapeutic procedures. Given the established importance of DNA in molecular biology and its central role in determining the fundamental operation of cellular processes, it is likely that expanded knowledge in this area will facilitate medical advances in numerous areas of clinical interest that may not have been possible without them. The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organ isms is also opening new avenues in the study of the theory of evolution.In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of molecular biology; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the ribosome and organelles, the development of embryos with body plans, the vertebrate immune system) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives (the primates, and indeed the other mammals) are expected to be illuminated by the data from this project.The Human Genome Diversity Project, spinoff research aimed at mapping the DNA that varies between human ethnic groups, which was rumored to have been halted, actually did continue and to date has yielded new conclusions. In the future, HGDP could possibly expose new data in disease surveillance, human development and anthropology. HGDP could unlock secrets behind and create new strategies for managing the vulnerability of ethnic groups to certain diseases (see race in biomedicine). It could also show how human populations have adapted to these vulnerabilities. The Human Genome Project When populations start to die there are only so many to choose from for genes. A founder effect will then be created (Welsch 73). The Human Genome Project set out to identify all the genetic material in humans (Welsch 265). Another type of variation is different from genes it is physiological. Our blood type is a protein on our red blood cells and delivers oxygen and immune responses ( Welsch 267). We are only able to give blood to those who have our same blood type unless we have the blood type that is the universal donor. We have a friend who has suffered miscarriages, the most recent was 26 weeks along. Her body keeps rejecting the baby and they are not sure what the cause is. They are sure that it is not the RH factor. The white blood cells also have their own set of proteins, the human leukocyte antigen system (HLA). This system protects our bodies from foreign objects or infectious agents (Welsch 268). Even within our families we are varied because we will not all have the same combination of the system. We all react to infections and diseases differently. My husband is highly allergic to artificial smells. His system seems to be in overdrive. When he was in the military his bunk mate sprayed scented aerosol deodorant and his throat closed up. He then realized he could not handle anything artificial. My friend's cousin had a double lung transplant last year. Several months after her transplant she got an infection and her body rejected her new lungs and she passed away. I think her rejection to the new lungs was because of the differences in the HLA system of her body and the donor's. Our bodies also adapt and look different from others in our skin tone and our body types. These traits are not as significant in our bodily functions but are varied nonetheless. W all can have different hair color, skin color, and shape and sizes. Our skin does not really have color, it has a pigment called melanin ( Welsch 271). Depending on where the person lived they may have more melanin production and have darker skin. Some can also be tall and skin or short and chubby. We measure this through the anthropometry. It helps determine the variations we see. We put these measurements in the cormic index, which is sitting height to standing height ( Welsch 273). The intemembral index is the ratio of arm length to leg length (Welsch 273). Body fat is determined by the BMI or body mass index. A person can be too skinny or too fat and have a BMI that is not healthy. Another variation is race. This our society's system for classifying people based on how they look. These differences are believed to reflect the root of genetic and biological differences. We also adapt to the environments we encounter. We can either allow our environment to change us or we can change the environment. To survive we have to figure out what needs to change and react accordingly. We have to have a certain plasticity. We all change during our lifetime and it comes somewhat from our surroundings. We can perform niche construction and make our environment suitable to our living conditions. On the farm my in laws own they do several things to insure their success. They have to give the cows shots to make sure they are healthy enough for reproduction and the babies will be healthy enough to be sold. They take care of the grass and the other parts of the land to ensure the cows are fed during the spring, summer and fall. They make sure that there is enough hay to feed them during the winter. As parents we have the ability to help our children adapt. To set them up for success in life as humans. We teach our children how to cook, clean, read, and write. The ability to care for themselves spans across generations. They will teach their own children these abilities to adapt and survive in the world around them. We pass this on to them through extra-genetic inheritance. We have a new emergence of new species through speciation. Differences can be so vast that it becomes a totally different species. Such as the dog and the wolf. Both have canine but the wolf is considered a different species. Evolution takes place as we experience different things in our culture. We have to adapt as our culture changes. The constructivist approach shows that our biology is a process of construction (Welsch 239). Our bodies work in combination with our genes to affect how genes can be expressed or epigenetic system of inheritance ( Welsch 240). When our genes are altered we can pass those down to our children affecting how their bodies work and how they behave. The way we raise our children affects how they will behave as adults. If we are nurturing, loving and kind to our children almost all of the time these will be the traits they possess unless they have something else going on biologically. If we behave negative with our children and this is all they see they will in turn possess those traits. This is the behavioral system of inheritance. We also store symbols and communicate them with others around us, showing the world our understanding through them. The symbols we use come from the symbolic system of inheritance. Through manipulating the world around us and changing the world around us it is important to our biocultural evolution. Change is an important part of who we are. Just as when we move into a new home, a new town, new school, and even a new job we change and construct the environment to fit our needs. We do certain things so we can fit in and feel comfortable. It allows us to thrive. We even try to change the land we live on. Another aspect of biocultural evolution is the evolution of our behaviors. Sociobiology explains our behaviors as related to our biological component (Welsch 245). Our behavior can also be influenced by the earth and social things going on around us. This comes from the human behavioral ecology (HBE) (Welsch 246). We adapt our behavior to our society so that we can fit and continue to evolve. Our behaviors are directly connected to our biological self. This comes from biological determinism (Welsch 247). Some of them come forward or (emergence) based on who we see and interact with in our daily lives. We adapt and change through our diet, moving to different places, and sometimes we even change our bodies through modification to make ourselves fit in. Just like runway models who extreme diet and workout to be tiny enough to be considered for the runway. This shapes our cultures around the world and how we all view each other. Everyone in this world is so unique. No two people even family members will be completely identical. Our bodies adapt and varied through the generations to be continued successfully. We all try to fit in with our behaviors so that our true biological self can come forward. We need to be conscious in the things we teach our children because they will be the next generation and bring forth a new culture. Works CitedWelsch, Robert Louis, et al. Anthropology: Asking Questions about Human Origins, Diversity, and Culture. Oxford University Press, 2017.