About film Magnifico Essay

The film opens with the birth of Magnifico (also called Ikoy in the film). It is clearly discernible at the outset that the boy was born in to a rural poor family. His father, Gerry, is a carpenter but does not have regular employment. It was Gerry who christened him Magnifico because he enjoyed watching a magician by that same name. Magnifico’s mother, Edna, augments the family income by stitching embroideries. Their house is a dilapidated hollow-blocks-and-wood structure typical in rural Philippines. They were so impoverished that they could only prepare soup and noodles for the town fiesta. At one point Edna had to pawn her wedding ring so they could have food on their table. The story actually begins when Magnifico turned nine. His brother, Miong, has just lost his much-needed scholarship from a university in the capital city Manila. This was a heavy blow because Gerry pinned his hopes on Miong to save the family from poverty. His grandmother, Magda, who lives with Magnifico’s family, figured in a serious accident and had to be hospitalized. In the hospital it was discovered that Magda had pancreatic cancer. This was another backbreaking blow because part of Gerry’s meager income would now go to medical expenses. As if these problems were not exasperating enough, Magnifico’ sister Helen had cerebral palsy, which rendered her incapable of self-mobility and comprehensible speech. Burdened by such seemingly insurmountable difficulties, Edna lustily sighed, â€Å"life is a never-ending misery†. But whole throughout the film life proved to be a series of small marvels. When Magnifico heard whispers that his grandmother Magda would soon die and that his family was incapable of shouldering the sky-high burial expenses, he innocently devised a secret plan. Employing the help of his school buddy Carlo, he covertly began constructing a wooden coffin. For materials he asked scrap wood from a local woodcarving shop and borrowed carpentry tools from his neighbors. And together with Carlo, he sold iced water and juice at the town carnival, hoping to collect money enough for his grandmother’s funeral dress, flowers, and tomb. When their two plastic jars emptied, they ended up with 306 pesos (about 4 euros) in their hands. However this was way too low, considering that he needed at least 30,000 pesos (roughly 400 euros). Yet Magnifico never lost hope. Nor felt bad. He was determined to fulfill his mission even if he had to sell iced water and juice until kingdom come. For aside from toiling for her grandma’s wake, he was also saving for her sister Helen. He  promised to bring her to the town carnival so she could have a colored balloon and enjoy the merry-go-round and other fun rides. Since Helen could not walk, Magnifico resolved to use his money to rent a wheelchair from Domeng. On the day Magnifico and Helen would go to the carnival, Magda’s illness worsened. And since his parents had virtually nothing, Magnifico had to part with his 230 pesos to buy the requisite medicines. Armed with less than a hundred pesos in his pockets but with a lot of determination, Magnifico brought Helen to the carnival by carrying her on his back. The neighbors who saw Magnifico and Helen at the carnival showed them compassion. A guy who used to bully Helen for laughs drove them there. Two feuding neighbors each gave them 100 pesos for tickets to the rides. One ticket controller admitted them without charge, another gave them a huge discount and a vendor gave Helen a free balloon. Magnifico brought Helen around. He showed her the cotton candies, the ice cream, the works. Helen had the time of her life. When Domeng saw Magnifico hauling Helen on his back, he understood why Magnifico wanted to rent his wheelchair. Moved by what he witnessed, Domeng decided to give his wheelchair to Magnifico for free. So he arranged for Magnifico to get the wheelchair from his house. On his way to Domeng’s house, Magnifico was hit by a car and died instantly. The colorful coffin he built for his grandmother became the chest in which he was buried. MAGNIFICO AS A CHRIST-FIGURE Peter Malone defines the Christ-figure in films as â€Å"any purely fictional character who resembles Jesus, significantly and substantially†. This does mean that the character has to look like the conventional Jesus in church paintings or be named Jesus. The character does not even have to be Christian nor male nor sinless in order to be a Christ-figure. The Christ-figure is â€Å"neither Jesus nor the Christ, but rather a shadow, a faint glimmer or reflection of him†. Thus, for the Christ-figure to be authentic, the film character must mirror Jesus’ life in some way. When the film character’s life or at least some aspects of it make implicit, metaphorical representations of Jesus’ own life and values then he or she may be considered a Christ-figure. Hence, â€Å"the Christ-figure is a way of being led back to the Jesus of the Gospels†. Aside from being the son of a carpenter, the central dynamic of Magnifico’s story runs parallel to a variety of  Christ-story elements and situations in the Gospels. The film presents these elements and situations in both symbolic forms and in the day to day life and behavior of Magnifico. The following are some of the scenes wherein we can see Jesus peek through in Magnifico. a.) Magnifico serves others with love Magnifico is a film brimming with Christian themes, the most obvious of which is that of selfless love. Magnifico’s love for his grandma Magda, for his parents, for his brother Miong, for his buddy Carlo, and especially for his sister Helen is radically Christian and thus radically different from any experience of love these people have ever experienced from other members of their family and from their neighbors. Magnifico’s attentiveness to the feelings and needs of his ailing grandmother contrasts against Edna’s bitterness towards Magda. Edna regarded Magda’s illness and impending death as an unnecessary encumbrance to the family. Magnifico, on the other had, wanted to make her grandma’s apparent passing away as dignified and unburdensome as possible. He spent much of his free time making this mission into reality. Magnifico’s compassion towards Helen contrasts against Makoy’s bullying of the crippled girl. He never felt burdened by Helen even if he had to carry, entertain, protect and feed her often. He labored hard to secure a wheelchair for her and to give her the chance to have a â€Å"normal† life and enjoy the carnival. While doing all these, Magnifico never complained nor had any selfish reasons. All he cared about was the joy he could give to those he loved and to those who needed him the most. Such compassion and selfless desire to be of service to others positively manifests Magnifico’s role as a Christ-figure who came to serve not to be served and to give his life as a ransom for many. b.) Magnifico makes â€Å"miracles† happen There is a minor character in the film named Ka Doring. She isolated herself from people and lived in the cemetery because she felt more at peace being away from the crowd. She was always begrudging and her face perpetually frowned. Children made fun of her hoarse voice. In turn she would scare them off with threats and curses. Magnifico brought her a bottle of herbal medicine for her soar throat. At first Ka Doring suspected that Magnifico was just one of the kids who wanted to make fun of her so she threw the bottle away. Upon learning this, Magnifico brought her another bottle and this time Ka Doring drank a few gulps. Later on Ka Doring’s sore throat would go away. During the town fiesta, Magnifico also brought Ka Doring noodles cooked by her mother. Magnifico brought about healing in Ka Doring, both in the physical and in the emotional sense. For when her soar throat healed she was not anymore antagonistic towards the children who made fun of her. Another small miracle made possible by Magnifico concerned Helen’s speech impediment. Edna tried all she could to teach her daughter Helen to say even such simple words as Nanay (mother) but to no avail. There came a point when Edna’s patience was stretched too thin that she ended up hurting Helen physically. On the night when Helen would be brought by Magnifico to the carnival she miraculously began to talk. It was out of sheer joy that Helen began to utter words like â€Å"mother† and â€Å"carnival†. The total healing experienced by Ka Doring and the unsurpassable joy experienced by Helen which gave her the impetus to speak implicitly establishes that dimension of Jesus as healer and miracle worker. These two narrative frames dramatically highlights Magnifico as a Christ-figure. c.) Magnifico inspires forgiveness and reconciliation Magnifico’s christological identity is exteriorized not only in the small miracles he effected in Ka Doring and Helen but also in bringing about reconciliation between Miong and his girlfriend, between Edna and Magda, and between Tessie and Cristy. Miong broke his rich girlfriend’s heart when she learned that Miong only wanted to marry her in order to bail out his family from poverty. Magnifico encouraged his elder brother Miong to ask forgiveness from his girlfriend. Miong humbled himself and went to his girlfriend to reconcile with her. As has been noted above, Edna was always bitter towards Magda. But in the end Edna’s attitude towards her mother-in-law changed radically. It seemed that Edna’s heart suddenly melted when she saw her son carrying Helen on his back without a hint of displeasure or exasperation. The camera focused on Edna’s face and we see tears streaming down her cheek. Then she looked at Magda, and in their eye-to-eye contact it is communicated that now Edna understood the meaning of unconditional love. If her son Magnifico could carry the crippled Helen  with love, so must she bear Magda with patience and compassion. That night was the beginning for a new and better relationship between Edna and Magda. Tessie and Cristy were both jealous of each other. While Tessie was a perennial gambler, Cristy was a helpless rumormonger. They were neighbors but they didn’t talk to each other. In the carnival they each gave Magnifico one hundred pesos. Not conscious of the presence of the other, each waved and smiled at Magnifico and Helen. After which they discovered that the other was just nearby and they soon had eye-to-eye contact. For a brief moment it seemed that their mutual hatred for each other had gone away for the better. It seemed that at last they were initiating a new way of being neighbors. Except for his brother Miong, it was not a conscious effort on the part of Magnifico to bring warring people to reconcile. Yet it seemed that every contact with Magnifico was life-changing and inspiring. These people were moved to ask pardon, to forgive and reconcile not so much by what Magnifico did as by his manner, his way of being and loving, which formed a luminous evidence to his being a Christ-figure. d.) Magnifico carries his own cross, dies and brings about redemption To start building his grandma’s coffin Magnifico and his devoted friend Carlo went to a woodcarving shop and asked its owner for scrap wood. On their way home they carried a long wooden plank on their shoulders which paralleled to that part in the passion story when Simon of Cyrene helped Jesus carry his cross. Whole throughout the movie Magnifico would be seen carrying something – a bottle of herbal medicine and some noodles for Ka Doring, a basin of vegetable for his family’s lunch, plastic jars for iced juice and water, a pouch of money to buy medicines for his grandma Magda, a brush to paint her coffin, and Helen on her back. These were his little crosses. These bespoke of his immense determination to be a person for others. And such involving scenes were essentially Christlike in their execution, content and effect. The life of Magnifico was cut short. He was on his way to meet Domeng to get the wheelchair for his paralyzed sister when a vehicle hit him. He died just like that. He must have been too excited to see Domeng on the other side of the road that he failed to notice the speedy cars. Up to his last breath Magnifico was always on the move to be of service to others. Symbolically his death poignantly conveys that, like Christ, he was willing to lay down his life for others. It was a kind of poetic justice – his death empowered  others to new life. This new life began for the family he left behind. Everyone who knew him attended his funeral. It was such a sad moment. The burial donations the family received totaled 31,105 pesos. When he was still alive Magnifico hoped to raise as much as 30,000 pesos. Ironically, this was to be accomplished in his death. Because of it Edna was able to redeem the wedding ring she pawned. And because of it they had something to restart on financially. Hence, the money became a metaphor of redemption for his family. One recurring symbol used throughout the film was the Rubik’s cube which Gerry tried to solve for at least a year. His failure to solve it symbolized his family’s lack of accomplishment in delivering themselves out of poverty, despair and misery. After one problem piled after another Gerry could not bear it any longer and threw the Rubik’s cube out of his sight. After Magnifico’s death, Gerry discovered that Magnifico had solved the Rubik’s cube, putting everything in its proper place. This was so symbolic of what Magnifico did for the people around him – he united his family, reconciled feuding neighbors, brought about healing to the sick, gave joy to the handicapped – in short putting their lives and their relationships in their proper place. Thus, in effect Magnifico became the Good Shepherd who died so that others may have the fullness of life.

Participative Management Essay

In the corporate world, management style has shifted from scientific management to participatory management. While scientific principles of management underlines communication, leadership and participation , participatory management is anchored on the need for quality management, good relationship with the workers, building teams and integrated organizational structures. Research has shown that the following benefits can be accrued from participatory management. Firstly, it can result to the decline in absenteeism and turnover while enhancing attraction and retention of workers since they have a feeling of ownership in the organization. It also promotes effective and efficient conveyance of information between the management and the employee at all levels in the organization. (Yeatts, Hyten, 1998, p. 16). Elsewhere, it makes everyone to feel a stake order in the decision making process. Additionally, it reduces the cases of internal disagreements and wrangles since the workers interact without suspicion and consider each other a brother/sister. Participative management helps to widen the scope of skills of the staff and enhances innovations and designing of efficient ways and procedures for tasks. Finally, it motivates and gives job satisfaction to the workers ((Yeatts, Hyten, 1998, p. 29). On the other hand, participatory management has some demerits that have been evident in organizations which have implemented it. To begin with, most employees do not accept the responsibility of making decision for the organizations and instead they like being told what to do. At the same time, some of the workers are illiterate and not versed with the tasks of the organization hence they require training. Others demand pay if included in decision making. It requires the participation of many people thus making decision making to go slow resulting to inefficiency (Yeatts, Hyten, 1998, p. 37). In conclusion therefore, participatory management is of great benefit to both private and public sectors. It is the best for the newly founded organizations towards struggle for their survival through competitive advantages.

Sarcoidosis

Sarcoidosis is a multi-system disorder that is caused by inflammation of body tissues. It particularly affects the lungs and lymph nodes but it can affect any other body parts. The cause of this disorder is yet to be established and its cure has also not yet known. Its symptoms in most cases come gradually but might after some time appear abruptly. This paper is going to have an in-depth analysis of what perhaps leads to this disorder, give some of the symptoms that are characteristic of this disease, its possible treatment and the group that is most affected by it. The disease was identified for the first time over a century ago in England by a doctor known as Hutchinson and another doctor from Norway called Caesar Boeck and that was why the disease originally came to be referred to as Boeck’s or Hutchinson’s disease. Unfortunately, it is the young persons mostly those within the age bracket of 20 to 40 years and those that look strong and energetic that are affected (Baughman, 2006). Its appearance might at first appear to be mild but after sometime this may turn to be fatal. This disorder when this disorder is critically analyzed, it seems to vary across gender as it is women who are more affected than men and this is a claim that is supported by a survey that was conducted by the American Lung Association that revealed that black females are affected almost twice as much as black males are affected. According to the same report, it is also dependant on racial background as in most cases it is the blacks, Danes and Swedes that are affected most. Reports available show that blacks are affected more than whites in fact, the mortality rate of the former is sixteen times than the number of the whites that are affected (Stein, 1998). The disease effects can start affecting any organ and then spread to other organs. â€Å"Sarcoidosis†¦ can appear in almost any organ in the body, although the inflammation of the body’s tissues can begin in any organ and usually affects more than one organ† (Ebony, 106). The affected organs develop microscopic lumps which are known as granulomas that may last for some time and then disappear even without any medical intervention is done but in cases where they do not disappear, the skin may become scarred and inflamed. The affected persons may start complaining of fatigue but because they look young and energetic, doctors might fail to diagnose them for this disorder until it is later clearly suspected to be the one and an X-ray is conducted or a routine physical examination of the chest is conducted. This is what happened to one former marathon runner who says that she started complaining of fatigue long before but her doctor would dismiss her claims as unrelated and would attribute them to her stressful workload. According to her, she may have developed the disorder within a period ranging from one to sixteen years as it is only in 2001 she was diagnosed of the same (Ebony. 2005). People affected by this disorder say it is hard to describe how they feel when sick as one never gets refreshed even after resting. Generally, the common symptoms that are reported are that the victims generally become fatigued, lose weight, have blurred vision, sometimes gasp for breath, and have dry eyes and report of dry cough. It may also occur abruptly where rashes may appear on the skin and some bumps appear on the forehead, face and eyes inflammation (Swierzewski, 2000) Most of those affected by sarcoidosis about (60-80) % heal particularly after 2-3 years without having any medical attention. In most cases, those affected by this disorder do not know that they affected and end up having damaged lungs. If this disorder does not disappear immediately, it remains on a low level but might with time progress on. About 10 to 20 percent of cases of sarcoidosis are a bit serious and can lead to permanent debilitation while it is about only about 10 percent of sarcoidosis cases can be fatal (Schiff et al, 2006). There tends to be some relationship between how serious the disease begins and how it progresses and ends. In most cases, if nodosum appears suddenly there is a high possibility that the pains will be short-lived and ends without being treated According to statistics, thirty to seventy percent of the victims do not have any serious health complications that might require medical attention but sometimes these patients are given some therapeutic treatment like corticosteroids although it is not very clear whether the disease is reversed or not. There have also been cases where steroids such as methotrexate and azathioprine have been used in treating the disease (Baughman, 2006). As this study has established, sarcoidosis is a disorder that affects virtually all body organs but the most affected are the lungs. It leads to the development of some microscopic lumps that with time causes skin rashes. According to studies that have been done, the disease mostly affects people of African American decent, the Swedes and the Danes more than it affects the whites and to make the matter worse, those in the age bracket of 20 to 40 years. The cause of the disease and cure has not yet been established although some therapeutic medical interventions are given.

Research/ Detail Paper of the Religion of the Sunni Muslim People Research

/ Detail of the Religion of the Sunni Muslim People - Research Paper Example Although several branches of Islam exist, Sunni Muslims are the largest by followership, accounting for about 80 percent of the world’s Muslim population, followed by the Shi’a at approximately 10 percent. As a branch of Islam, the Sunni emerged in the 7th century C.E. in the Middle East after disagreements arose over who would succeed Prophet Muhammad. At the height of the disagreement, the Sunni advocated for the selection of a successor (also referred to as caliph) by the entire Muslim community, but the Shi’a believed that Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law and also cousin, had been chosen by the prophet to succeed him. This paper will research specific features and viewpoints of the Sunni Muslim and describe their past, present and future. It will further highlight their conflicts and where they stand on the worldview and in the eyes of the US government and the Taliban. At this point, it is important to mention that the defining belief of the Taliban is Sunn i Islam; however, their interpretation and practice of Islam, including Sharia law and female brutality, informed scholars’ decision to refer to them as fundamentalists or extremists (Goodson, 2002). The term Sunni is derived from the word Sunnah, which is an Arabic term that translates into â€Å"the traditions of Prophet Muhammad†. The Sunni Muslims agree with the other Islamic branches on many practical and theological aspects. This is because Islamic life stems from and is defined by Sharia (or Islamic) law. However, the areas that are unique to Sunni Muslims and set them apart from the start include the fact that they developed and grew from a controversy; they do not agree with claims that a successor was named by the prophet; they believed that companions of the prophet had authoritative leadership; and they relied on the consensus of scholars and religion. More contemporarily is their typical emphasis of Allah’s power and how he determines human fate. Th eir definition of what it entails being a Muslim is more inclusive, and that is why their tradition places prominence on the functions of religion in family (such as marriage, inheritance, divorce), political and public life (Goodson, 2002). For a better insight into Sunni Muslims, the research will be split into sections. Further, because the essence of Sunni Muslims is founded on their differences with the Shi’a Muslims, comparisons between the two will be used for the purpose of emphasis. History Although the Sunni would later develop theological and legal traditions and structures over the centuries, its fundamental origins are embedded in the caliph succession dispute. The 632 C.E. death of Muhammad pitted the Muslim community into a leadership wrangle because Muhammad did not have living heirs, who were required to be male. Without one that the community could agree upon, it followed that they split along the lines of choice of a leader, ending up with the Sunni and Shi ’a. Each sect had several subdivisions, but the Sunni and the Shi’a still represent the key divide in Islam (Johnson, 2010). Those who did not back the leadership of Ali adopted the name Sunni, which is a term that derives from ahl al-sunna wa al-jamaa. This is an Arabic phrase referring to a group of people who consider themselves to follow the ways of the prophet and are people of the community. They decided that the next caliph should come from the Quraysh tribe, to which the prophet belonged. Literature on Sunni history indicates that while the prophet

Telecommunications Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6500 words

Telecommunications - Essay Example Nevertheless information is also important to economic activities, ranging from agriculture to manufacturing and services. If information is significant to advancement, then telecommunications, as a way of sharing information is not only a relationship between people, although a connection in the sequence of the advancement processes itself. The role of telecommunications in broadcasting information can be predominantly important in rural regions where other methods of acquiring and transmission information for instance personal contact, transport, and postal services are expected to be less available. Distance signifies time, in an all the time more time-conscious world. In economies that rely forcefully upon agriculture or the mining of resources, remoteness from urban markets has usually been improved only with the setting up of enhanced transportation facilities, usually roads. Nevertheless transportation links leave industries without the availability of information which is becoming ever more important for production and marketing of their products. Yet another difficulty experienced by many developing countries is economic field. As they endeavor to expand their economies, judicious availability of information becomes especially significant. In the demand of physical goods and amenities, rural areas could only vie across obstacles of distance and geography if they had a natural resource advantage. Telecommunications is also critical to the rising information fields in developing areas. In the areas of information goods and services, dependable telecommunications infrastructure can make geography and distance immaterial. For instance, the National Research Council reveals that for Africa, where populations and economic activities continue mostly rural-based, sharing information is crucial if Africans are to contribute to finding solutions to their own development problems: "Economic development in Africa will depend heavily on the development of the information sector. Countries will need the ability to communicate efficiently with local and overseas markets to determine where they many have comparative advantages for supplying their products to consumers or to purchase essential imports, based on current prices and services. Many of the economic development problems facing African countries have scientific and technological components that will require solutions to be developed in Africa by African scientists.... Lack of information is a critical constraint" (National Research Council, 1990). In the past several years, the role of telecommunications in the development process has acquired extensive focus. The ITU performed a series of analyses starting with a literature research, followed by a series of case studies on different developmental applications of telecommunications, which were summed up in Telecommunications for Development (1983). Other case studies were compiled in Information, Telecommunications, and Development (1986). The ITU's Maitland Commission pointed at the significance of telecommunica

The Japanese Traditional Structure of Quick Response Assignment

The Japanese Traditional Structure of Quick Response - Assignment Example Light has been shed on how the supply chain structure leads to the success of such a business. Moreover, an analysis of the future effects of the Japan-Korean fashion collaboration in the setting of globalization in the fashion industry is elaborated. Major apparel firms work at introducing new styles every week. This is to be able to meet the demand of the Japanese young women market that is characterized by a fast-moving trend cycle with a great diversity of choices in styles. Studies show that fast fashion has a real effect on the supply chain for the fashion product, but the consumer demand is the main driving force that determines this fast fashion. This contrasts with the previous theories on the supply chain, which have been solely supplying driven aspects. Fast fashion is a phenomenon that is developed as a direct result of changing anticipations and demand from customers (Lea-Greenwood, 2006, p. 266). In addition, there is a tradition among the Japanese people that makes them prefer many varieties and have an interest in the craft. This calls for their fashion styles to be always changing apart from being unique from those of their counterparts. The organizations do not mainly depend on the seasonal collection, but they e nsure that there is a compressed time interval between the moment a product is designed and the moment that is used. This compression is attained either by lumping together selections that are more regular or through an ongoing redesigning and unchanging new production. In other words, the Just - in - Time (JIT) supply chain management theory is upheld. It entails â€Å"having the items of the right quality and quantity in the right place at the right time† (Cheng et al, 1996, p.2).  

Adaptive Supply Chain Co-Management manual Essay

Adaptive Supply Chain Co-Management manual - Essay Example Collaboration and competition have often been regarded as incompatible concepts especially as evolutionary biology became well-known in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It was presumed that only the fittest can survive if those with the most desirable traits are naturally selected over those that did not possess these ideas. This mentality spilled over into business literature and led to the manifestation of certain laws such as the Sherman and Clayton Anti-trust Acts (Zeiltin, 2007). However, time illustrated that sometimes certain kinds of cooperation and competition did not necessarily have to replace each other as seen through the formation of professional associations, cartels and business groups. Individuals may participate in a cartel in order to enhance the quality of output or their safety; this may also be done for reasons of efficiency. Some forms of collaboration such as the inter-firm network came about due to rising complexities of organisations. However, they took relatively long periods of time before they came to be accepted as cultural norms; a lot of ambiguity exists on the need for collaboration or cooperation; all of it depends in the nature of acceptance in the concerned nation (Zeiltin, 2007). Businesses today have now moved from the anti-trust mindset of yester years; in fact, it is not uncommon to find some form of collaboration between competitors in almost all industries of the economy. New technologies are becoming more complex and require huge capital investment to develop; markets are getting more turbulent, and the time needed to deliver products to the market is also increasing. Additionally, time and geographical boundaries have shrunk thus indicating that operating business internationally is a critical factor. Government policies are not particularly favourable in conducting business and so are other issues within

Political Ideologies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Political Ideologies - Essay Example Marx’s opinion about ideology and its implications emphasizes on mystification and class system. It is believed by Marxists that the term ideology in politics gained a controversial nature from the fact that it forces interests of the ruling class on society thus class system is made a key element of ideology. The ideas of the ruling class always become the ruling ideas which have to be accepted by those who lack the means of mental production because the ruling class acquires control over the means of mental production also. Regarding the origin of the term ideology, it was first coined during the French Revolution when it was opinioned that political ideology would grow up to become the queen of all sciences. The original meaning of this term lost its value in the coming years to be replaced by Marx’s use of the term and the interest taken by generations of Marxists in the new color ascribed to ideology by Marx explains the popularity of ideology as a key science in modern social and political world. Ideology is also largely thought of as a manifestation of power in that it not only develops a class system but also supports a system of unequal class power in a society. This means that the ideas of the ruling class become an ideology which has to be accepted by those who are less powerful in a society no matter how exploitative the implications of that ideology may turn out to be. The ruling ideas of any age make up an ideology which explains why this term keeps changing colors with every age. Ho wever, in later years the term ideology in politics was separated from any negative connotations like mystification and class position as suggested by Marx which also largely put an end to the cold war between science and ideology. The journey of the term ideology suffered huge ups and down with the emergence of dictatorships like Nazi in Germany and Stalinist in Russia when the scholars began to use the term ideology

Betty Neumans systems model approach to nursing theory Article

Betty Neumans systems model approach to nursing theory - Article Example I agree with the assessment of Betty Neuman that the field of healthcare is a difficult one to utilize a singular theory in helping to define it in totality.Due to the fact that nursing is an infinitely complex and nuanced discipline, it is prone to change and be redefined in any of multiple key areas. However, if one were forced to choose a solitary theory as an explanation of the way in which nursing should operate and is currently exhibited within its application, it would necessarily be that of Betty Neuman's Systems Model. Due to the fact that her approach argues that the practitioner seek to approach the individual patient on a systemic level, it is one of the few theoretical approaches that requires the practitioner to dispel as many preconceived notions as is possible. Due to the fact that healthcare practitioners are oftentimes caught up in the individual stressors that a patient may exhibit, such factors are oftentimes not headed. Â   I further agree with the analysis that Neuman’s Systems Model approach points out that individuals within the nursing profession oftentimes treat the symptoms of a secondary issue rather than seeking to draw a level of inference upon what unique stressors could have caused the secondary and tertiary issues that the patient might be experiencing. It is Neuman’s understanding that once these key stressors are isolated and dealt with accordingly, the overall health of the patient will necessarily improve. By seeking to localize and treat these key stressors, both physiological as well as others, the nursing professional can gain a great deal of inference on what ultimate causes which affect the health and outlook of the patient may be (Beckman 2012). Likewise, an example of such a path of action could necessarily be the fact that a patient is exhibiting symptoms that are indicative of a key stressor that medical healthcare professions have not yet localized or considered with regards to the treatment plan. Th is particular theory allows the nursing professional to approach each and every patient with a broad based understanding that very often the case will be that the key underlying causes of pain, discomfort, or need for treatment will not be expressly manifest to the healthcare professional at first glance and will require a degree of personal understanding, interaction, and appreciation for the unique subset of needs that the given patient might require (Hayden 2012). Further, I agree with the respondent that in Neuman’s theory it is the responsibility of all practitioners to not rely too heavily upon any one given theory as a means of explaining any and all patient interaction (Clark 2012). Due to the fact that theory in question approaches the issue of nursing and healthcare administration from such an open perspective, it is perhaps better than most in helping to acquaint the healthcare professional with the infinite complexities that doubtless exist when it comes to provid ing services to affected patients (Mercks et al 2012). In this way, although Neuman’s theory goes a long way in assisting the professional to approach each and every situation with an open mind and to think outside of the box, the fact of the matter is that even after such an approach has been effected, the theory requires that the practitioner assume that a hidden level of meaning therefore exists within the treatment and underlying causes that afflict the patient in question. Such an assumption may or may not be true; however, to assume that in every situation there exists something that does not meet the eye is both foolish and presumptive (Cobb 2012). As such, such a level of

Analysis of the Film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind Essay

Analysis of the Film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind - Essay Example After a fight, during which Clementine tells him of Lacuna, and how she has had her memory erased, he is so angry that he sets this operation up for himself. Joel then takes the audience back and forth as the memories are erased, realizing that he does love her and trying to save his memories by hiding them amongst those of his childhood. Clementine supports him, trying to help him escape. When this is unsuccessful, he awakes from the operation and feels he has to go to Montauk, where they first met. Strangely, she is there searching for him. Joel could be described as a sensitive, introverted man, with some judgemental aspects to his character, but he wants to be understood and fears betrayal. In contrast, Clementine is outgoing, wants fun and enjoyment, is excitable and impulsive, yet she seeks the security of being loved for herself, and her overriding fear is of being judged. With such a combination, it would seem there is no hope for them. At this meeting, though they do not remember each other, they fall in love again.

Piaget Theory of Children Cognitive Development Essay Example for Free

Piaget Theory of Children Cognitive Development Essay Much of the research since the late 1950s on the development of role taking and moral judgments has its roots in the research conducted by Piaget in the 1920s. One thrust of Piagets theorizing in his earliest writings dealt with the proposition that children progress from an egocentric to a perspectivistic state. He proposed that children younger than 6 or 7 years of age do not clearly differentiate between self and others or between thoughts (the psychological) and external events. A consequence of the failure to differentiate the self from others is that the child is unable to take the perspective of another person. For instance, in communicating with others the child is unable to take into account the requirements of the listener. A consequence of the failure to differentiate thoughts from external events is that the child attributes an objective reality to internal mental events such as dreams. A major developmental transition was posited to occur when the child shifts from an egocentric state to one in which the self is differentiated from others and there is the ability to take anothers perspective. (Angela M. ODonnell, Alison King, 1999) However, the most extensive research in a social domain undertaken by Piaget during this early period dealt with childrens moral judgments. Those were also the only studies on moral development to be done by Piaget. Three specific aspects of Piagets moral development theory had a substantial influence on later research. One was the characterization of moral development as a process of differentiating moral from nonmoral judgments. The second was the proposed interrelations between general cognitive orientations and moral judgments. And the third was the proposed relations between changes in perspective-taking abilities and changes in moral judgments. (Jacques Montangero, Danielle Maurice-Naville, Angela Cornu-Wells, 1997). Piaget proposed that children progress through two moral judgment levels (following an early premoral phase), the first being labeled heteronomous (generally corresponding to ages 3 to 8 years) and the second labeled autonomous. In the heteronomous level, the child has unilateral respect for adults (regarded as authority) and morality is, therefore, based on conformity. The right or good is seen by the child as adherence to externally determined and fixed rules and commands. The young childs morality of conformity and unilateral respect becomes transformed into a morality of cooperation and mutual respect. The basis for the autonomous level is the emergence of concepts of reciprocity and equality. At this level, rules are viewed as products of mutual agreement, serving the aims of cooperation, and thus are regarded as changeable. (Gwen Bredendieck Fischer, 1999). In formulating the levels of heteronomy and autonomy, Piaget studied childrens judgments about several specific issues, including rules, punishment, intentionality, lying, stealing, and distributive justice. A brief description of the levels can be provided by considering some of the studies of childrens thinking about rules and about intentionality in situations involving property damage, deceit, and theft. The definitions of the moral levels were derived, in part, from the way Piaget had framed childrens general cognitive capacities. Two presumed characteristics regarding the increasing differentiations that occur with development were relevant. One proposed characteristic was the childs egocentricism, the failure to clearly distinguish the selfs perspective from that of others. A second relevant feature was the young childs failure to differentiate the physical world from social and mental phenomena; young children confuse the subjective and objective aspects of their experience. (Richard I. Evans, Eleanor Duckworth, 1973) According to Piaget, one concrete manifestation of young childrens inability to differentiate perspectives and to differentiate the physical from the social is their attitudes toward social rules. It was proposed that children at the heteronomous level view all social rules as absolute. The inability to take the perspective of others leads the child to assume that everyone adheres to the same rules. There is a failure to comprehend the possibility that rules may be relative to the social context or to an individuals perspective. In turn, there is an inability to clearly distinguish physical from social phenomena that leads to a confusion of social regularities with physical regularities, such that social rules are seen as fixed in much the same way as are physical regularities. For instance, Piaget maintained that children regard rules of games as unchangeable; they believe it would be wrong to modify the rules of a game even if they were changed by general consensus. (Harry Morgan, 1997) Another manifestation of the young childs cognitive confusions is that judgments of right and wrong are based on the material consequences of actions, rather than the actors intentions or motives. Piaget examined the relative importance that children attribute to intentions and consequences in situations involving material damage, lying, and stealing. Younger children, it was found, attribute greater importance, in judging culpability, to amount of damage (e. g. , breaking the 15 cups accidentally is worse than breaking one cup intentionally), whereas older children attribute more importance to the intentions of the actor. Similarly, younger children assess the wrongness of lying or stealing, not by the motives of the actor, but by their quantitative deviation from the truth or the amount stolen. In judgments about theft, for instance, children judging by consequences would say that stealing a larger amount to give to a very poor friend is worse than stealing a lesser amount for oneself. (R. Clarke Fowler, 1998). In contrast with the heteronomous level, at the autonomous level respect is no longer unilateral, rules are not viewed as absolute or fixed, and judgments are based on intentions. Piaget proposed that these changes are stimulated by the increasing interactions with peers (such as in school) and the decreasing orientation to relations with adult authority that usually occurs during late childhood. Relations with authorities (parents, teachers, etc. ), he maintained, are likely to lead to conformity and an attitude of unilateral respect on the part of the young child. That is, the child feels that the authorities are superior and that their dictates are right by virtue of their superior status. In order for the shift from a heteronomous to an autonomous orientation to occur the child must more clearly differentiate the self from others and, thereby, be able to take the perspective of others. Relations with adult authorities who impose external rules upon the child are likely to reinforce a heteronomous orientation, whereas relations with peers are more likely to stimulate attempts to take the perspectives of others. Therefore, through increasing interactions with those he or she can relate to on an equal footing, the child is stimulated to view his or her own perspective as one among many different perspectives. In the process, mutual respect replaces unilateral respect for authority and the bases of a sense of justice reciprocity, equality, and cooperation emerge. Rules are then regarded as social constructions, based on agreement, that serve functions shared by the participants of social interactions. The increasing awareness of others perspectives and subjective intentions leads to judgments that are based on intentionality rather than consequences. (John H. Flavell, 1963) In addition to the connections to general cognitive capacities, Piagets characterization of moral judgments was a global one in that development was defined as entailing a progressive differentiation of principles of justice (ought) from the habitual, customary, and conventional (is). In essence, the claim was that concepts of justice do not emerge until the autonomous stage. Thus, the heteronomous morality of constraint and unilateral respect is a morality of custom, convention and tradition, while autonomous morality of mutual respect and cooperation prevails over custom and convention. Prior to the development of concepts of justice, therefore, the child must progress through the simpler, conformity-based conventional orientation. In sum, Piaget proposed a model of development as the differentiation of domains of knowledge. Only at more advanced stages are moral judgments and knowledge of the social order (or even morality and physical law) distinguished. It is precisely on this basis that Piaget thought it was methodologically valid to examine childrens concepts of rules of marble games as a means to understanding their moral reasoning. (Christopher M. Kribs-Zaleta, DLynn Badshaw, 2003) Piagets professional career has been devoted to exploring the possibilities of a psychological theory of relativity. In this approach neither the subject, who knows, nor the object, which is known, have absolute status. Each is conditioned on the other within a continually changing framework. Change occurs through interchanges of actions and reactions. Actions of the subject are like probes equivalent to statements by which the subject says: I think you, the object, are such and such. When acted upon, objects act back, revealing who and what they are. Morton Ann Gernsbacher, Sharon J. Derry, 1998) Piagets contribution to the study of knowledge has been to escape the philosophic traps of subjectivity and objectivity. The former makes knowledge a self satisfying concoction where, for the sake of consistency, the subject creates concepts of objects and reality. This position tends toward error through failure to come to grips with the facts of reality. It puts the subject in control of deciding what reality is and, in the extreme, allows distortion for the sake of maintaining the subjects version of how things ought to be. Objectivity errs at the other end and, in its extreme, denies self-initiated definition, making the subject only a valid recorder of reality. Distortion can occur either through exposure to odd circumstances or through breakdowns in the subjects recording devices. The position of relativity seeks solution to both problems. Its clearest expression is found when both subject and object are given defining powers in their interactions. There is double agency, with the object telling what it is just as forcibly as the subject reveals itself through its actions. (Hans G. Furth, 1987) With interactions as the basic reality, the context of knowledge is dynamic. It is also the means to knowledge insofar as subject and object are able to extract orderly relations from their interactions. These relations among actions and reactions color definitions of both agents. They are the medium for knowing and provide the terms by which subject and object attain their forms. This is why, for example, Piaget argues that space, number, and the like, remain open to redefinition throughout development. Numbers are not things to be grasped but are products from relations abstracted from subject-object interactions. True relations become expressed through numbering operations, which coordinate actions of the subject as well as reactions of objects. It appears that Piagets approach is unique among contemporary psychological theories by its treatment of relations as the topic of knowledge. Relations are primary, with subject and object being their products. For other theorists, these terms are reversed; subject and object are posited and relations come secondarily. In Piagets scheme, neither subject nor object ever gets to know one another with certainty. Together they can work only toward relations that are reliable. Validity is always a relative matter, depending on current relations, which remain open to further redefinition. (Arthur J. Baroody, Alexis Benson, 2001) This point no doubt has stymied most attempts to bring Piagets work into the mainstream of psychological theories. It is like the essential key without which notes may sound similar but actually render a different song. The stumbling block is evident, for example, in the many ways phenomena originally generated by Piagets position have undergone alteration when considered from the view of more familiar theories. Conservation provides the most telling illustration. Few, if any, of these alternative explanations deal with or care to deal with the phenomenon as a conservation of a subject-object relation. The more common explanation states that number or amount is conceived as constant through physical changes in the object. Within Piagets framework, the physical changes are said to remain constant; they are understood as but two versions of a single relation. The relation is between number- or amount-making actions, with their products made ostensible in the reactions of cubes, chips, or clay. Leslie Smith, Julie Dockrell, Peter Tomlinson, 1997) There is a tendency among contemporary theorists to credit Piaget with having shown that children are cognitively active and control rather than being controlled by external objects or other persons. This emphasis has clouded the fact that objects and persons are not benign, simply waiting for children to transform them into this or that conception. In order to put relations in clear relief, it is helpful to give these things their proper due in knowledge. It helps even to anthropomorphize their role. Objects are as active as children. They move, change shape, enlarge in size, fall off tables, roll, and otherwise respond when they are contacted. Each reaction is reciprocal to something children do. In the case of conservation, to use an example often cited by Piaget, the child who plays with pebbles in his or her back yard may come to understand number making operations because the stones react as they do to his or her manipulations. That which remains constant in making a row, then a circle, then a tower, and next two columns is only the relation among these actions from the child and the several reactions of the pebbles. (Leonora M. Cohen, Younghee M. Kim, 1999). It is now possible to outline the meaning of relations in the social domain where knowledge is based on interactions between the child and other persons. The following sketch highlights the general points of the theory. (a) Children enter the world as actors, seeking order and regularity. This search describes their inherent motivation for knowledge. b) Children look for order first in their own actions by attempting to find that which is repeatable and reliable in execution of actions. (c) Insofar as actions make contact with other things, or persons, effects of actions are not solely under the control of the child. These things react in reciprocity to the actions exerted upon them and together the action and reaction produce effects that differ from those that would result from either alone. (d) This fact of double agency naturally widens childrens focus from action to interaction. Because other agents act in reciprocity to childrens actions, children are forced to seek explanations for change and order in the interplay between actors. The foregoing points can be summarized as follows. Suppose the child intends that an action have a particular outcome or effect. The child then executes the act in accordance with this intention. Suppose also that the act engages another person who adds to the original act with a reaction. The coupling of these actions may have an effect that is different from the childs intention or anticipation in performing the original act. It would be futile to seek order either in the childs or the other persons parts, alone. This is why for Piaget, the child is led to seek a solution in the coupling and arrives at the conclusion that the actions of persons are reciprocally related. This is also why Piaget contends that naive egocentrism ends most probably during the childs first year. To maintain an egocentric posture, a child would have to deny the facts of reciprocity made evident through the thousands of interactions experienced in everyday dealings with other persons. Joy A. Palmer, Liora Bresler, David E. Cooper, 2001) (e) Thereafter, the childs search for order turns to identifying the forms of reciprocal relations that occur in interpersonal interactions. (f) Piaget suggests that there are two such forms. One is a direct and symmetrical reciprocity where ones action is free to match or counter the others action. The second is a reciprocity of complement where ones action must conform to the dictates set down by the others action. g) These two forms describe the basic relations in which people order themselves as actors with respect to other persons, who are also actors. They provide the epistemic unit from which self and other achieve definition. (h) For Piaget, development proceeds as these relations are structured and restructured. They give rise to social and moral conceptions that pertain to the self, other persons, possible relations among persons, and principles of societal functioning, both practical as well as ideal. (Gavin Nobes, Chris Pawson, 2003)

American football positions Essay Example for Free

American football positions Essay Play design is two fold 1. To get to the outside and take advantage of our TB’s speed. 2. To create vertical seams so that we can take advantage of over pursuing defenders Oline Frontside- Reach Overtake Rules O-line Backside- Cut backside Defensive tackle Playside receivers†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦GOTTA MAN UP AND GET PHYSICAL HERE!!!! QBOpen at 4 or 8 o’clock and find the running back. Once you have handed off the ball Boot away from the play (Right) and carry out your â€Å"Winter†. Get on your horse to handoff the ball. TB is NOT waiting for you. LTStretch Rules LGStretch Rules CStretch Rules RGStretch Rules RTStretch Rules WPearl Route XWheel route YMan block. ZMan block FbMotion up to the line and block the Sam linebacker. If he is inside the box then go get him. TBLine up 7-8 yards from the line of scrimmage (in Pistol) or 2 yards behind the QB and directly behind the guard (in Gun). ONCE THE QB HAS THE BALL open up and aim 5 yards outside the play side tackle. Your read is the last man on the line. If the Tackle has him sealed then stay on your track to the outside, if we don’t have the edge cut it upfield RIGHT AWAY!!!! Coaching Points JESUS=CROSS Play designed to get our X receiver lost in coverage. Play also allows for us to take a shot if we have a coverage mismatch on the outside. QBAlthough this is our 30 series so it’s a quick 5 step drop. In any man coverage we are looking for the X receiver as he clears the tackle. In cover three (Cut and Hold) we are looking for the Y receiver who is hooking up in the zone. LTSlide Pro LGSlide Pro CSlide Pro RGSlide Pro RTSlide Pro WGo route. Get inside position and get upfield. Get on your horse as you are an option on this play. XDrag at 4 yards. If there is a linebacker in your track go underneath him. Make sure that you are going underneath both the FB and Y receiver. You should almost brush by them as you pass them. YRun a drag at 5 yards and once you get on top of the tackle, turn it into a hook. (you are setting the last â€Å"pick† for the X receiver coming across the formation) Don’t make the pick look deliberate, just turn and look for the ball forcing the defender to go around you. ZGo route. Get outside position and get upfield. Get on your horse as you are either getting the ball deep, or clearing out that area for the X receiver. FbMotion into the line and run a drag at 5 yards. You should look to brush by the X receiver as you pass by ONTOP of him. RbEarly Motion. Set up behind inside leg of tackle, and cover up that gap. If no one comes release to the flats. Coaching Points (H)awaii-Hooks QB’s know where you are going with the ball pre snap, and throw the ball on time on your third step QBPresnap read: FS for cover zero, and Man or Zone off motion. Cover 1 we are looking backside (W) . Cover zero we are looking to Go route (X). Cover 3 Hold and Cut we are looking for the Y receiver. If there is a blitz or interior pressure from a blitz we are checking down to FB. LTSlide Pro LGSlide Pro CSlide Pro RGSlide Pro RTSlide Pro WHook breaking 7 yards back to 5. Get inside position on your DB and attack the ball when its in the air. XGo route. In cover zero look for the ball as soon as you have cleared your defender. Get inside position on your defender ASAP. YGet inside position on your defender and Hook at 10 yards, work back to 7 yards. Break and come back to the QbDont wait for the ball to come to you, go get the ball ZGet inside position on your defender and Hook at 7 yards, work back to 5 yards. Break and come back to the Qb Dont wait for the ball to come to you, go get the ball FbDrag at 3-5 yards. RbEarly Motion. Set up behind between backside tackle and guard. You are responsible for anything that comes through this gap.

Why women should choose to reintegrate into a society

Why women should choose to reintegrate into a society This major question raised in 2006 is perhaps one of the foremost concerns of Pat Carlens feminist support. Strongly opposed to women in prison state of affairs, she is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading experts on crime, gender and punishment.  [i]   Carlen has put through career as a Professor of Sociology at Bath University  [ii]  and before was an Honorary Professor of Criminology of Keele where she was founded and was Head of the Department of Criminology as well as visiting Professor of Criminology at Westminster University, London. In addition to the above she was a member of both the Commissioning Panel and the Steering Committee of the ESRC Crime and Social Order Programme 1992-1997. Moreover, she is a founder member of the campaigning group Women in Prison created in1983. The group consisted of the first step to a long term and unfinished attempt to reduce number and theorize and balance specific needs of female prisons  [iii]  . Pat Carlen is a leading scholar in the area of women and punishment. In 1997 she was awarded the Sellin-Glueck Prize by the American Society of Criminology for outstanding international contributions to the domain  [iv]  . Carlen devoted her life in researching a wide range of criminological issues; however, she compassionately focused on analysing the penal control of women and matters surrounding their imprisonment. She found her inspiration in the unfair and striking features of womens imprisonment determination  [v]  . True to her beliefs she illustrated the path towards the considerations for the abolition of womens imprisonment. In formulating her ideas she discussed some of prisons abolitions traditional and contemporary enemies after researching and interviewing people in the sector  [vi]  . Adrion Howe argues that the work of Pat Carlen have commenced a process which will eventually fundamentally transform critical analyses of punishment regimes. However, processes in this direction have been slow and the work of Carlen on insisting that women prisoners be handled as a subject worth of study and change was exemplary  [vii]  . In 1983 Carlen wrote a book, Womens Imprisonment, about Cornton Vale, Scotlands only prison for women. She did the research and as she said wrote the book as one off without expecting to do any further research on prisons. What really changed her mind was her meeting later in 1983 with an ex-prisoner, Chris Tchaicowsky, who at the time was the founder member of Women in Prison leading campaigns for women still locked up in prisons. She invited Carlen to join after reading her book. The task of the group was to raise public awareness of women in prisons via many ways. Carlen mostly helped in writing books and articles, helping the campaigning group to be born  [viii]  . Classicists like Emile Durkheim approach the issue believing that the function of punishment is the promotion of social harmony with the exclusion of deviant persons from society and the transfer of moral identity to society. Womens Imprisonment is, nowadays, characterised by discontinuities, contradictions, fragmentation and transformation. Modern approaches rooted to crime reduction. Carlen in Analyzing Womens Imprisonment raised the question as to whether crime reduction will be achieved by increased use of imprisonment. Her approach on that issue was that sending a wrongdoer to prison may aggravate rather than ameliorate the psychological, economic and social factors which purpose woman to criminal activity  [ix]  . A radical prison critic is that it was never used for punishment of all serious crimes but also to storehouse the poor, unemployed and mentally ill. In 1981, Carlen leaded a survey and questioned Scottish magistrates and judges about womens imprisonment, receiving replies determining the reasons why a woman would go to prison. The answers consisted of whether she was a good mother, how ordered her life was, if she has a husband, if she has any children, whether she has abandoned her husband or her children are already in Care or if she was battered. Women like that are more likely to be sent to prison. However, these myths along with many other stereotypes about women offenders has had bad effects on prison regimes,  [x]  resulting to prejudice on sentence over women of the above categories  [xi]  . British Justice is supposed to be not only gender-neutral but also colour blind  [xii]  . Yet, this is not true when it comes to women imprisonment. People awarding sentence are more likely to convict women from ethnic minorities or young women. Thus, is racism the key to increase of female prison population? Early reformers such as John Howard and Elizabeth Fry attempted to campaign for the segregation of female from male prisoners  [xiii]  and different prison regimes for women but at the end the results of their efforts were not satisfactory. Pat Carlen continues on the same path in order to ameliorate the conditions that surround womens imprisonment in nowadays. Is it fair to start imprisonment reduction with women? A very small amount of violent crime is committed by women and females commit crime in very different circumstances to men. Carlens investigation showed that women mostly commit crime in relation to drugs, fraud or theft. The majority of British women prisoners have not been goaled because of the seriousness of their crimes but because of their abnormal domestic circumstances or less than conventional life styles. A strong argument over womens imprisonment consist the failure of the non-penal welfare or health institutions to cope with their problems. Prisons are the only places that cannot refuse to take those women for whom neither the health nor the welfare services will take responsibility even if they had committed the most minor crime. As prison officers informed Carlen in her research, prisons are not equipped to cope with the problems from which every other agency is copping out. This leads to the increase of the prison population. Between the years 1993-2001 the population i ncreased by over 145 %  [xiv]  . In the previous ten years the women population in prisons doubled and male increased by approximately 50%. Additionally, women prisoners tend to be isolated from their families imposing significant pain of imprisonment with the loss of their role as mothers. Furthermore, women generally are badly treated by the officers and the prison staff, when it comes to gynecological requirements (handcuffed in labor and during transfer or treatment to hospital, drug virginal inspections). In addition, one of the prisons roles is to help prisoners to cope with the new life they will come across after release, nevertheless only few rehabilitation regimes exist. An ex-prisoner told Carlen that in order to keep them out (criminals) we should give them something outside. Otherwise, a life of surviving in there seems preferable to life out here where there is just nothing  [xv]  . Clive Soley agreed with Carlens findings and added that if society actually wants to improve the situation, must set as its priority the preparation for release  [xvi]  . Pat Carlen admits that womens crime is less serious and not threatening to the public even after their release from prison, as well as the fact that only few prison escapes have occurred involving women and it is not unusual for most of them to voluntarily return to face their punishment  [xvii]  . After making a lot of research and analysing the circumstances under women get to live with in prisons has come to the conclusion that prison is not only damaging during the course of sentence, but once coming out it has other problems as well. Her research and findings made her develop the idea discovering possible alternatives. Pat Carlen, points out that the main cause of the crime is the relationship between the offender and the community and believes that the only cure also lies in the same relationship  [xviii]  . Alternatives to imprisonments should include any program of intervention likely to deter someone from future criminal activity. She continues to strongly analyse th e possible future alternatives as her main contribution. Harris, a commentator, came to add to Carlens thought of alternatives by pointing out that part of the problem is that it is unclear what the better treatment of women actually means  [xix]  . This is true as there are no gender specific sentences. Carlen also considered whether reform or abolition of womens imprisonment would be appropriate. As the main intention of her book Sledgehammer she argues that womens imprisonment in England and Wales at the end of the 20th century is excessively punitive; totally inappropriate to the needs of the women being sent to prison; and is ready for abolition in its present form. However, she came to argue that reform might be impossible to achieve and will always lead to the abandonment of imprisonment as punishment for minor offences. Eventually, is better to do something than nothing. Prison is to punish and within that context all reforms had to be thought  [xx]  . In 1997, Carlen gave some politico-philosophical justifications for imprisonment in order to clear up the primary aims it should have. However, the following no longer apply. She starts stating that the government has an obligation to wipe state clean making wrongdoers pay for their offences in applying the eye for an eye philosophy. Additionally, she expressed that prisons can be used to improve peoples characters and teach them useful and new skills that could be helpful to lead new lives according to the law after their release. Imprisonment also can be said to prevent criminals to recommit a crime in the future on top of deterring others tempted to commit a crime. In this manner crime rates lower and public is protected  [xxi]  . Carlen proposes an idea for a more productive reduction of the female population. In her point of view sentencers should be required to justify to a Sentencing Council all custodial sentences and remand of who appropriate the offence was in relation to the offender in addition to any pre existing criteria for the award after their examination. Other requirements are for sentencers to state what they hope to achieve by the custodial sentence awarded and finally to make the calculations of what the total costs are likely to be. The aim behind her proposition is to make courts to think twice before sending someone into prison as they should publicize what they are doing  [xxii]  . Moreover, there is still the need for gender-tested and ethnicity-tested regimes that will ensure that some groups do not have a greater impact. Other ways that reduction of population can be achieved is if the society took certain measures to battle poverty and inequality as well as diminishing sexism and racism that result in discriminating sentencing  [xxiii]  . After considering the situation of the day the criminologist saw three possible future scenarios governing womens imprisonment in Britain. Firstly, more of the same circumstances, however, getting worse as the female prison population will rise. The second scenario involves less of the same other than with more experimentation with progressive projects resulting to changeable number on womens population. The last scenario that she encounters is the reduction on womens imprisonment. This scenario contains close regulations for the womens law breaking actions leading to the abolishment of the situation as it was known until then  [xxiv]  . She supported the view of abolishing womens imprisonment for an experimental period of 5 years. For that period of time imprisonment should not be considered as one of the normal punishment for women and that a maximum of only 100 custodial places should be retained for female offenders convicted of abnormally serious offences. If accused so, the y should only be imprisoned after their case was referred by a trial judge to a Sentencing Council who would make the final adjudication. Moreover, her proposition involved undertaking of fund and far-reaching examination of all sentencing. Her proposal for abolition was greeted with a certain amount of skepticism. One radio interviewer asked if male burglars should retire knowing that their wives or girlfriends could carry on the business with impunity. This is clearly ironical; however, is it entirely a false approach? As a Senior Official in the Home Office added to Carlens proposition; What we want is smaller open prisons in the community and in an urban context. Over this point, the courts support an anti-feminist approach; if you women wanted equality, youve got to take it  [xxv]  . The criminologists, Deborah Baskin and Ira Sommers, acceptably, point out that Carlen does not explain how womens criminal careers are circumscribed specifically by gender  [xxvi]  . Furthermore, they add that she does not distinguish the gender specific ways in which women are exploited and controlled by familialism and consumerism. Baskin and Sommers also argue that Carlens repetition of the timeworn and functionalist rhetori c that only women experience dual exploitation in the public and private spheres adds little to the analysis. On the other hand, they furthermore continue to disagree that Carlen fails to see that working class men also have to make class gender deals which include being regulated within family. Briefly, Carlens analysis does not address the precise ways in which social reactions are gender specific and thus affect womens lives differently from mens  [xxvii]  . Pat Carlen characterise herself as not a prison abolitionist in the sense that she can easily envisage a time when it will not be considered necessary to have prisons and lock up certain offenders as a matter of public safety  [xxviii]  . Abolition is not a thread to the public. The whole situation leaves the state with the choice to continuingly misuse millions of pounds on prisons or taking daring steps to stop legislators and sentencers seeing prison as being the absolute panacea for all political and social ills and instead consider it as an abnormal and unusual punishement  [xxix]  . Joe Sim added to the abolition argument that abolitionists ideas should not be dismissed as idealistic and utopian but rather should be understood  [xxx]  . In the 1990s Carlen thought of some further developments including educational initiatives, personal officer scheme, introduction of sentence planning, opening up prisons. Nonetheless, many of these already exist only in name on pape r or defunct  [xxxi]  . In 2006 she returned to the argument of abolition and noted that abolitionists have a number of enemies, and populist politicians are the greatest. Women imprisonment should be abolished as an experiment that will later follow in being applied to men as well. It started its test on women as they are considered to have non-threatening criminal profiles  [xxxii]  . Even if researches have taken place, nowadays, womens imprisonment involves as many inhumanities as ever. This occurs as there is a serious lack of attention from research. Carlen emphasized on the differential experiences of criminal justice and criminality encountered by females in comparison to males  [xxxiii]  . She is puzzled to know what more can be done to make changes needed in order for womens imprisonment in 21st century to stop being the disgrace that used to be in the 20th century. During most of the 20th century women in prison tended to be invisible prisoners, the women whom nobody wanted and almost everyone had forgotten. At the beginning of the 21st century the prison is as much a set of all kinds of social production as it has ever been. Although, they still represent a very small proportion of the prison population, there is no rational reason why that proportion should not be even smaller. Instead, it is slowly but surely increasing and this is not a problem be ing limited in England and Wales. The criminologist insisted in her diary that there must be an alternative and that the womens system has no management strategy and no structure to hold on  [xxxiv]  . The best regimes can do is ameliorate the worst effects. Thus, as Worrall also confirmed, crime will be broken by a government honest enough to admit that prison does not work and sufficiently courageous to accept that prison is itself part of crime problem rather than part of the solution  [xxxv]  . All the above ideas can be dragged from the historical idea that prisons make bad people worse  [xxxvi]  . In conclusion, Pat Carlens contribution to criminology was enormous in relation to female offenders and their imprisonment. Her main aim in the sector was to ameliorate the present circumstances affecting womens imprisonment. She devoted her work in researching and interviewing people the area considering prisons in order to find the roots of the problem. This would later make her able to combat the obstacles and reach a more compromising situation. Many found her work inspiring. Nonetheless, others found that it lacks focus on certain areas. Her contribution marked the beginning of slow and steady developments in the field. On the other hand, the study of womens imprisonment has still a long way to go.

I Believe: A Code Of Ethics Essay -- essays research papers

I Believe: A Code of Ethics by PHIL 301 Fall Semester, 1996 I believe in the power of Mind... I believe pitchers should bat... I believe Oswald was a patsy... I believe everything is a conspiracy... I believe that people are responsible for their own actions... I believe that The Who is the greatest rock band of all time... I believe in tolerance... I believe in capitalism... I believe we are who we want to be... I believe in choice... I believe in love... I believe that Bert and Ernie are televisions first gay couple... I believe that the 1979 Orioles were robbed... I believe that people who say they like Indian food are just trying to be cool... I believe that people get the kind of government they deserve... I believe in the power of having no god... I believe I can fly... I believe that Barney is the purple Messiah... I believe that the bible was a novel, written for profit... I believe in the mother ship... I believe the Mona Lisa was framed... I believe in Pez... I believe Darwin... I believe in beauty... I believe we have the worst justice system in the world with the exception of every other system... I believe in Wally and the Beaver... I believe I didn't learn anything in kindergarten... I believe we are all in this together... I believe that breakfast is the most important meal of the day... I believe the ozone layer is just fine... I believe in dedication... I believe my daughter is a prodigy... I believe that Kathy Lee is the Anti-Christ... I believe my dad can still beat me at arm wrestling... I believe I wouldn't want to beat him... I believe you shouldn't believe everything you breath... I believe in the power of love to warp mens minds and make men great... I believe in Santa Claus, the Tooth Fairy and the seventh inning stretch... I believe in me... I believe I'm done now...   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Developing a code of ethics is the most important thing a person can do. Such a code is necessary for humans because of our capacity to reason. Our ability to apply rational thought to the conduct of our lives is what makes mankind more than just an animal with an interesting thumb. These rational thoughts could very easily lead us to terrible acts, for what is in our best interest is often harmful to others. However there is another ability, peculiar to humans alone, that keeps most of us on the right path. Our ability to know what ... ...assless. And it is not susceptible to the fickle human idea of physical beauty.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  But how to know if a law is just? If it serves to protect, promote and respect the human Mind. If a law or an act works against the cause of Mind than it is unjust. Such laws must not be obeyed and indeed must be worked against. But how is one to know the extent of such civil disobedience? In my case, the answer is found in rule number one. So long as I do not put my family at risk of losing a husband and father, justice must be served. It is through this kind of meshing of the four rules that ethical quandaries can be answered.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Noticeably, the rules of the code, while existing to serve the cause of good and avoid evil, do not make it clear how to know which is which. There is no specific rule that gives a clear definition of what is good and what is evil. This is because the rules, when properly applied to an ethical problem, will lead to the action that is good.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  So then what is good? What is evil? Good is somewhat easier to define in that it is directly related to the last three rules of the code. An act which s

The Effects of Agent Orange on Veterans of the Vietnam War Essay

Almost thirty years after the last troops were pulled out of what was then South Vietnam, its effects are still felt in today’s society. It is hard not to find someone who’s life has not been affected because of this war. One of the most controversial decisions made in the war was to use chemicals to fight the enemy. The most boradly used chemiucal was called Agent Orange. Some people agreed with the use of Agent Orange. They saw it as a very viable weapon that needed to be used in order to keep the Communist from taking control of South Vietnam and subverting their democratic government. Many others disapproved of its use. They knew, correctly, that it would severely devastate the landscape of Vietnam and would forever ruin the land for agricultural use. They also knew of the harmful effect it would have once adults and children came in contact with the harmful chemicals that form the chemical make up of Agent Orange. Once the first bombs carrying Agent Orange were dropped there was no going back. For some people the use of Agent Orange changed their whole opinion of the war and what we were really fighting for. Pictures showing burns and disfigurement were soon to hit the presses. Once the American public could see exactly what was happening and how the civilian life was being treated impacted many people so much that they could no longer support what the United States was doing over in Vietnam. The goal of this paper is to show how the use of Agent Orange changed many people’s perspective of the war in Vietnam. Why has the use of Agent Orange become so controversial? The Americans dropped the atomic bomb to end World War II and did not have the backlash that it had, and still has, with Agent Orange. The ver... ...Ballatine Books, 1995. Schuck, Peter H. Agent Orange on Trial: Mass Toxic Disasters in the Courts. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1986. Shesol, Jeff. Mutual Contempt: Lyndon Johnson, Robert Kennedy, and the Feud That Defined a Decade. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. Spake, Amanda. â€Å"The Healing Process is Far From Done.† U.S. News and World Report 128 no. 17. 2000: 39 Uhl, Michael and Tod Ensign. GI Guinea Pigs: How the Pentagon Exposed Our Troops to Dangers More Deadly Than War: Agent Orange and Atomic Radiation. Playboy Press, 1980. Warwick, Hugh. â€Å"Agent Orange: The Poisoning of Vietnam.† The Ecologist v28 no. 5. 1998: 264-265. Wilcox, Fred A. Waiting For an Army To Die. Washington, D.C.: Seven Locks Press, 1989. Young, Marilyn B. The Vietnam Wars: 1945-1990. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991.

Sister Carrie :: essays research papers

I think it is very difficult to define the exact character of Dreiser’s "Sister Carrie", and his original intention. I would say, "as many eyes, so many opinions", so no wonder there are different approaches and interpretations towards the novel which is influenced not just by the reader’s reading or personal experience, but also by their particular philosophy of life as well as knowledge about the historical background. "Sister Carrie" can be read as a novel of desire, seduction, or the critique of capitalism and consumerism. It’s definitely not the plot or characters which are dominant elements of it. The taste and the literary value of Dreiser’s novel is shaped and created by its setting and the author’s tone. Chicago and New York have almost as organic and important role in the novel as the characters. They do not just form the simple environment for the novel, but they influence its character and a very strong impr ession. Chicago’s character is kind of more "positive", it is a city of promise, luck, rise (Carrie). We can say that in Chicago, Hurtswood means something. New York ‘s character is different. It’s a city of lies, fall, impersonal isolation of "walled city where surviving is much more difficult than in Chicago. In New York, Hurstwood means nothing. The setting creates different expectations to people. During the reading of "Sister Carrie", I was interested in searching and revealing the different kinds of desire. Generally we can say that Dreiser deals with the desire of wealth, social status, material things which are represented by money. Within this generalization, we can find and identify many other faces and forms of lust and longing. Carrie, as an ambitious and strong woman embodies the social values of the consumer culture. All she longs for is a material wealth, which represents power. She can be seen as a symbol of money. But Car rie lives in a world of prices. Her labor costs $4.50; board $4 a week; car fare $.60; cheap lunch $.10; etc. She imitates everything perfectly and that’s why she is becoming what people want her to become. Her desires come from other people’s desires. It is exactly Drouet, who introduces her to the world of wealth, to materialism. He gives her money, flat even "name when she enters the world of theater. She plays her role according to Drouet’s desires – once acts as his mistress or "wife".

Jensen Shoes Company Essay

Company management requires to know the opportunities for new markets and new products, necessitating the need to expand product lines in this process, Janes Karvitz, strategic production took up Lyndon in her team and now facing problem with his attitude at work and trying to motivate him to finish his assigned work About organization and employee designations: Jensen Shoes is an American company which is specializing in athletic and casual shoes for both adults and children The hierarchy of the employees is as follows: Sally Briggs-VP of marketing Chuck Taylor – Director of Strategic marketing (Strategic product managers) Jane Kravitz- casual wear ; Kyle-athletic shoes ; Robert – children shoes Lyndon –staff Patty Russell: HR professional Present situation of the company : About Lyndon and Jane Kravitz: †¢ Lyndon Twitchell ,a staff member in Jane’s team, and was given two strategic objectives (s.o.’s) to complete i.e Latino and African American market. †¢ In addition to it, he was assigned a third project on environmental issues at the same time. †¢ Lyndon has not been able to fulfil his strategic objectives under Chuck while he was in a management position. †¢ After been transferred to Jane’s team, he tried to take a week to fly to the west coast and attend a trade show. †¢ Twitchell and Jane came to an agreement that Twitchell would be responsible for only one strategic objective and they signed a contract to record the same. Problem identification and Contextual analysis: Pre-assumptions by Kravitz and their effect on her behaviour: The case reflected the fact that Janes took up Lyndon in her team and now facing problem with his attitude at work. Karvitz was already informed by Chuck that Lyndon is a guy who is difficult to handle in terms of work, This corresponds to the social information processing model , in which people adopt attitudes and behaviours in keeping with the cues provided by others with whom they come into contact. With this perceived information, she pre assumed that she can motivate and put him in to work, because she though Chuck is quick at deciding and so did not actually accepted the fact. The pre assumption brought changes in Janes behaviour and attitude towards Lyndon Brook. She, thinking that giving moral support can actually motivate Lyndon .Apart from this ,she personally experienced working with Lyndon and realized ,he has many great qualities of being professional, charming and the capability of solving problems . This extra care that Jane took, may be the reason Lyndon took advantage and planned a business . A pictorial SWOT analysis has been shown below: Strengths Value employees same as products Open door policy Weakness Improper task allocation Uncontrolled behaviour of employees Low product varieties Opportunities New markets New consumer preferences Threats Flattening sales of casual wear Competition from others in market Communication barriers: In case it was mentioned that, Lyndon was rude to his boss. When Kravitz called Lyndon to her cabin to have a formal talk, he left abruptly without even giving proper answer to Kravitz. Lyndon here did a selective screening. He did not bother what Kravitz is actually trying to communicate. He spoke just what he wanted to and left the cabin. Kravitz analysed this behaviour of Lyndon is due to the fact of career development desire, once he used to be in a position under Chuck. So, she promised Lyndon, that she will talk with the management to offer him a better position. This somehow created a little chance to talk to Lyndon. She even planned informal meets to make ease for Lyndon. Performance Management: feedback Lyndon performance was analysed by Chuck previously. And he remarked negative on his behaviour. Lyndon actually performed excellent in few of his projects assigned. He did not make out most of them good. Chuck may be focusing on only unfinished projects while evaluating Lyndon’s performance. Also being quick decision maker, he may not actually try to figure out the problem of Lyndon. This might be effected Lyndon in a negative way, that he was mistreated by his boss and remarked bad before all other colleagues. And thus is the reason for his resistance to the words and suggestions by Kravitz, feeling that he will anyways be not recognised for his work. Alternatives or possible solutions: The first alternative is to avoid pre assumptions. Kravitz would not have provided special treatment only to brook ,which he in turn realised it. He thought that he was treated separately distinguishing from other staff might be due to the negative image he has. So, it would have been much comfortable even to Lyndon, when considered equally with the remaining two people. This can bring him the feel of normalness while working. A part from this Kravitz should not follow projection methodology by expecting the same she feels at her work from her staff. The second alternative can be from the side of Lyndon. Lyndon should not have self-serving biasness. He is actually not accepting the internal faults but over estimating the external factors he was being influenced. This made him to deny the responsibility of finishing the so’s in time and even planning to a trip in unsuitable circumstances. RECOMMENDATIONS: The above alternatives can be viewed when Karvitz did not demonstrate fundamental attribution error. She can encourage Lyndon for his finished works and recognize him for the best results .She can give continuous reinforcement so that she can derive the desired behaviour quickly possible. Lyndon should also inculcate self-efficacy and try to help Karvitz in finishing the s.o.’s in time. He should avoid the negative thoughts of over burdening and extra works and be enthusiastic at finishing his job. The third recommendation in order to improve the situation is that the management must be realistic in allocating work to employees and Jane Kravitz must be bold enough not to accept a work if she found it very unrealistic and tough to finish. Too high self-esteem can prove to be counter-intuitive at times. While throwing birthday parties is fine, continuous reinforcement through extrinsic rewards and recognitions of the work been accomplished by employees can be more encouraging. Experimentation can be made using negative reinforcement, when positive reinforcement fails to work. The fear of losing job can increase the likelihood of desirable behaviour.

Autocratic and Democratic Leadership Essay

There are many pros and cons of both autocratic and democratic government, not to mention, many obvious differences. Surprisingly, there are also some similarities between these two unique governing styles. Autocracy as defined by the Merriam Webster online dictionary is, â€Å"A government in which one person possesses unlimited power.† Opposingly, democracy as defined by Danzinger, professor and former chair of the department of political science at the University of California is â€Å"A governance by leaders whose authority is based on a limited mandate from a universal electorate that selects among genuine alternatives and has some rights to political participation and opposition† (173). Most leadership characteristics can be categorized into these two groups further separating them into two distinct leadership styles. An autocratic leader tends to lead with an iron fist similar to the style of a totalitarian government, whereas a democratic leader tends to take a slightly softer approach governing with consent and compliance from the people. Throughout this paper I will provide an analysis of basic characteristics of both autocratic and democratic government and leaders, as well as a brief overview of the positive and negative aspects of both governing systems. Each governing style is made to work within its own environment, governing its people and doing what is best for its country. Autocracy requires a lack of separation of powers, so the absolute ruler cannot beopposed by any other powerful source. For example, a checks and balances’ system would deter an autocratic government because the leader would not have absolute power. Autocracies can take the form of a totalitarian/dictoral government, where a country is under the rule of one person. Many times, autocratic rulers work to better their countries only because it in turn provides great advantages for the rulers themselves. â€Å"An autocratic government is one that maximizes the net income the ruling clique extracts from the remainder of the population; this extraction, in turn, is the difference between the tax revenues the regime collects and the amounts it spends on public services, military activities, and interest.† (Niskanan, 182). Basically, out of the increase in output that results from the net income extracted from the population, the leader obtains more resources for his or her own purposes than for the general public. Also, since the public population is a source of tax-income for the leader, the leader then has  incentive to protect his or her people from warfare, terrorist attacks, etc. Hence, the monopolization of income tax can actually have a positive affect on the general public. The public is also benefitted because they obtain the income they have made that has not been taken in taxes. A commonly used phrase people use when talking about autocratic governments is, â€Å"An absolute ruler fails absolutely,† but is this necessarily the case in an autocratic government? Unlimited power of a ruler may only be considered dangerous if it falls into the wrong hands. The term autocracy has become synonymous with the title of dictator, however, not all dictatorships are necessarily a negative form of government. For example, Hugo Chavez, leader of Venezuela has created the Bolivarian Revolution, â€Å"A close replica of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal-a progressive income tax, public works, social security, cheap electricity-makes him wildly popular with the poor. And most Venezuelans are poor† (Palast 42). On the other hand, many people argue that Chavez is in fact a bad leader. A common view of the American government portrays Chavez as a threat to global oil prices and regional economy. Just like there is a good and bad side to autocratic leaders, ther e are many pros and cons when closely examining an autocratic government. Many may argue that an autocratic style of government is corrupt and unjust. However, there are many positive aspects of autocracy. Decisions are made quickly without strenuous contemplation from other political powers. For example, if a dictator wanted to pass a law making it illegal to wear blue jeans in his or her country he could pass the law without consent from anyone else. If a president wanted to make the same law, it would have to be overseen and contemplated by numerous other parties before passing. Not only is an autocratic government quick to make decisions, it also defines a clear bottom line. Topics of controversy are not left up to the interpretation of the public, and differing opinions are not expressed because the public population of an autocratic government is generally discouraged from expressing individual opinions. Unfortunately there are also many negative aspects of autocracy. Mainly, it  has the potential to ignore the needs of the majority. Ultimately, all decisions are left up to the leader, creating a potentially skewed outcome as far as the needs of the public go. The views and norms of a whole state can be held solely in the hands of one person and needless to say may have quite a negative effect. Irrational decisions can also be made, with virtually no hope of being stopped. If an autocratic leader happens to be having a bad day and makes an irrational and harsh decision, it may have a negative impact on all of the country. One may wonder why the citizens of an autocratic government would tolerate such a harsh and extreme leader, why not just overthrow him?The same logic of collective action that ensured that there are no social contracts in the historical record whereby large groups agreed to obtain the advantages of government also implies that the masses shall not overthrow an autocrat simply because they would be better off to do so. Historical evidence from at least the first pharos through Saddam Hussein indicates that resolute autocrats can survive even when they impose heinous amounts of suffering upon their peoples. When they are replaced, it is for other reasons (Mancur 23). The opposite of autocracy could be thought of as democracy. Democracy is a widely accepted form of government that works for the people by allowing them to choose their own representation. Not only are the people represented by a leader of their choice, but are also able to give opinions as to the on goings of their country. â€Å"Democracy is a sign of the existence of a strong civil society that is based on various intermediary groups, from women’s associations and labor unions to cooperatives and trade councils. Such groups serve as probably the most effective tools for communicating social demands to decision makers.† (Gangi 41). Democracy is said to have originated in medieval Europe as a cause of three main points;First, late medieval Europe had numerous political characteristics that distinguished it from other major world civilizations. These characteristics the most important of which were representative assemblies constituted as a basis for liberal democracy which provided Europe with a predisposition toward democratic political institutions. Second, the ‘military revolution’ of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries led to the strengthing of monarchal power in countries relying on domestic resources to finance modern armies.  In these countries, medieval constitutionalism was done away with and expansive autocracies were built demolishing the predisposition. Third, in countries that avoided the military revolution, military modernization did not destroy constitutional government, and a liberal political outcome became more likely (Downing 3). Much like autocracy requires a lack of separation of powers, democracy needs a separation of powers. A democratic government is divided into three branches. The executive branch consists of the presidential party which in turn consists of the president, the vice president, and all the cabinet members. This branch assists in carrying out the law. The president is allowed to pass or veto a bill sent by the legislature. The legislative branch or â€Å"Bicameral Congress† consists of the Senate (100 seats, one-third are renewed every two years; 2 members are elected from each state by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives (435 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms)† (https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/us.html). The legislative branch writes laws on a bill so they can be sent to the senator, and then to the representatives, and then to the president. The judicial branch is in charge of the court systems consisting of the â€Å"Supreme Court (nine justices; nominated by the president and confirmed with the advice and consent of the Senate; appointed to serve for life); United States Courts of Appeal; United States District Courts; State and County Courts† (https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/us.html). The judicial branch applies the law by hearing and making decisions on various legal cases. Just like any other government, democracy can vary from country to country. A democratic government may come in many different forms such as participatory democracy, representative democracy, electoral democracy, liberal democracy, etc, hence there are near endless positive and negative aspects. Singapore practices an electoral democracy where â€Å"All citizens periodically vote in order to select political leaders from among alternative contenders† (Danziger 173), meaning that the government picks the candidates that the citizens can vote for. In 2006 the Freedom House  described America as a liberal democracy which is a government where â€Å"Citizens enjoy not only electoral democracy but also these extensive political rights and civil liberties regarding participation, personal freedoms, and opposition† (173). However, I feel that America is better categorized as a representative democracy where â€Å"Citizens elect people to represent them in the political process and to allocate values on their behalf† (172). Because of all the different conditions in the many types of democracies one may wonder what exactly defines democracy. One of the key characteristics of American democracy is universal suffrage. Universal suffrage consists of the right to vote regardless of race, religion, gender, social status, economic status, etc. Suffrage has been a continually developing aspect of democracy for centuries. According to Wikipedia, African American suffrage began in 1866, and women’s suffrage began in 1920. A second democratic characteristic is equality of all people. Within the US Constitution it is implied that under a democratic government each person is entitled to equal protection under the law, freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, etc, along with various other economic, social, cultural, civil, political, and group-oriented rights. Democracy bases itself on providing fair and equal opportunities for all people regardless of their race, sex, religion, economic/social status, etc. The idea of American democracy fully supporting equality brought many immigrants here, with promises of equal opport unity. Along with all the rights and privileges citizens of a democratic government have, there are also some negative aspects. The larger democracies get, the more difficult voting and vote tallying becomes. For example, during the Gore vs. Bush presidential elections the vote counts in Florida were misinterpreted, and many people thought the outcome of the election was skewed due to vote fraud. Also, democracy is hailed as one of the most fair governments, but catering to the needs of only the majority actually excludes the minority. No matter how minuscule the minority may be, they are still be exploited by the majority. Lastly, the larger a democratic system becomes, the less peaceful and efficient it becomes. Mancur Olsen gives a good example of this negative aspect of  democracy in his essay Autocracy, Democracy, and History. If there are say five similar people, each of them will get about a fifth of the gains from the creation of a peaceful [democratic] order. †¦The advantages of such an order are so large that one fifth of the gains could eaisly exceed the total sacrifice. Moreover, when there are only a few people in a group it will be clear that the welfare of each person depends on whether each other individual acts in a group-oriented or anti-social way. Thus each person by making clear that the cooperation by others will bring forth cooperation from him but that non-cooperation will not, can increase the likelihood that others will match his behavior. This not only increases the probability of peaceful [democratic] interaction but even makes it easily possible that cooperation will reach an ideal or group optimal extent (Olsen 3). Hence, democracies work better for relatively small groups. Mancur argues that a democracy is better than raw anarchy, but democracy is still far from perfect. (2)In conclusion, both autocratic and democratic governments have many strong and weak points. Some negative aspects of autocracy such as income tax monopoly can have a positive affect on a whole country’s population, while some positive aspects of democracy such as majority ruling can have negative affects such as excluding the minority. The pros and cons of a government are what ultimately define that government’s basic structure. If a government has a disorganized electoral system, power could potentially fall into the wrong leaders hands. If a government has a very strict electoral policy, the people may be misrepresented due to the fact that they do not have full freedom to choose their leader. Each governmental style works for the betterment of their citizens whether it is by strict rule, or lax rule. All in all, governments working towards the betterment of their citizens, are truly working towards the betterment of the human population as a whole. Works Cited â€Å"Autocracy.† Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary. 2004. . Danziger, James. Understanding the Political World: A Comparative Introduction to Political Science. New York: Pearson Education Inc, 2007. Downing, Brian. The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy andAutocracy in Early Modern Europe. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992. Gangi, Akbar. â€Å"The Struggle Against Sultanism.† Journal of Democracy 2005: 16.4. ProjectMuse Scholarly Journals Online. Wayne State University Library. Wayne State University Library, Detroit, MI. 16 Apr 2007. Olsen, Mancur. â€Å"Autocracy, Democracy, and History.† Online working paper #22, 1991. 2 April 2007. Niskanan, William. Autocratic, Democratic and Optimal Government: Fiscal Choices and Economic Outcomes. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publications, 2004. Palast, Greg. â€Å"Hugo Chavez.† The Progressive. July 2006. 10 April 2007. â€Å"United States.† cia.gov. 2007. The World Fact Book. 4 April 2007. .